Ohio’s Black Settlers

Yesterday's America Editorial Team
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The state of Ohio claims more than forty vanished communities that were occupied by people of color. So-called “Negro” settlements, or colonies, as they were called, were primarily agrarian and separated from urban centers. And among the dozens of Black communities, many were established in Ohio prior to the Civil War by Freedmen, with aid from sympathetic whites. For those enslaved behind Confederate lines and unable to escape, Ohio represented freedom. While few written records remain, cemeteries and archaeological sites tell much of the history of those communities not enshrined in the history books.


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Ripley
Colonel James Poage, was a slave owner from Virginia by way of Kentucky, but had come to abhor slavery. In 1804, he and his family settled on one thousand acres on the Ohio River, and gave his twenty slaves their freedom. The area was home to many prominent abolitionists, and grew into a haven for runaway slaves. Also new settlers to Ohio, German, English, Irish, and Scottish immigrants were less invested in the practice of slavery, while many sought to end it outright through the organized Abolitionist Movement. Word would spread about Ohio. 

Conway Colony
Daniel Roe, minister of the New Jerusalem Church, headed for an area just outside Xenia in Greene County. Roe’s group, consisting of about one hundred families, purchased 729 acres of land in 1825, including a well-known medicinal spring with yellow-colored waters. In 1862, Moncure Daniel Conway led a large contingent of slaves on the dangerous trip from Falmouth, Virginia, to Yellow Springs. Once settled, he acted as a stop on the Underground Railroad. When the Civil War broke out, Conway made the treacherous journey to Washington, D.C. to aid others in their exodus from slavery, and found all of this father’s slaves concealed in the cellar of a Georgetown home. Back in Ohio, Moncure Conway became a friend and admirer of Horace Mann, the first president of nearby Antioch College. Mann, an ardent antislavery advocate, nourished a community of free thinkers in Yellow Springs, where the former slaves would be welcome. The Freedmen built houses along the Little Miami River, north of town, and the Black community flourished and found acceptance from the white community. The spirit of cooperation exists there today. 

 “[I] could give them no advice, but if I should ever meet any of them in Cincinnati, where I resided, I would do my best to place them beyond the reach of danger.” — Moncure Conway

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Poke Patch
The Greenfield Township included freedmen and fugitives who found work at the local iron furnaces or with area farmers. A growing collection of farmsteads spread over a five-miles radius came to be known as Poke Patch, ad became a key station on the Underground Railroad. Poke Patch provided assistance to as many as two hundred fugitive slaves. The community ceased to exist in the early 1900s, disappearing into the Wayne National Forest, and very little is known about it today.


“There were many well-defined routes of travel through Ohio, upon which people lived who were always ready to hide slaves for a time and then aid them on their way. Their stopping places were called stations, and the people conductors.” — historian Clement Martzloff

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Wilberforce University
In the autumn of 1856, the General Conference of the Methodist Church adopted a resolution to establish a college for people of color. The body purchased fifty-two acres at Tawawa Springs near Xenia, Ohio. Originally, the school was going to be called the Ohio African University, but was renamed Wilberforce University, and until its closing in 1862, Wilberforce had a student body composed primarily of the mixed race children of southern slaveowners.. A year later, it Daniel A. Payne, on behalf of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, purchased the stuttered campus for $10,000 and reopened it. As the oldest college in the United States founded by African Americans, its original mission was to provide educational opportunities for people of color.


“[Wilberforce has an] air of permanence and stability about this community…a certain number of coloured people had found themselves, had made a permanent settlement on the soil and wereat home.” — Booker T. Washington in 1906

Reds and Cold Warriors in the Land of Lincoln

Yesterday's America Editorial Team
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Reds and Cold Warriors in the Land of Lincoln

As far back as the end of the nineteenth century, Illinois was witness to the rise in labor organizations dedicated to change in working conditions, wages, and safety. The American labor movement drew inspiration from the Bolshevik takeover of Russia and the creation of the Soviet Union into the 1920s. So much so, that Marxist-Leninist tendencies took over segments of the labor movement in the Land of Lincoln. Throughout the early and mid-twentieth century, Illinois had plenty of social dissidents, anarchists, Bolsheviks, and all manner of communists. That is, until the years following World War II, when the Soviets were recast as the primary enemies of the West. And during the Cold War, Illinois had its own homegrown Cold Warriors.


Communist Party USA

Hoping to bring together various factions of socialists, Charles Ruthenberg became the first leader of the Communist Party USA. After infighting split the socialists in 1919 at the height of the First Red Scare in the United States, Ruthenberg and fellow communists Louis Fraina and John Reed officially founded Communist Party USA on Blue Island Avenue in Chicago. Over the years, Charles Ruthenberg was arrested several times and even did time in Sing Sing Prison. When he died in 1927, thousands packed a memorial at Chicago’s Ashland Auditorium.


“Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!” — Ronald Reagan on June 12, 1987

Gorbachev, Reagan, and Bush - 3 prominent figures of the Cold War - in New York City.
Gorbachev, Reagan and George Bush in New York City, 1988.

Ronald Reagan

Born in Tampico, Illinois, but raised all over the state, Ronald Reagan would grow into one of America’s most famous anti-Communists and Cold Warrior-in-Chief. Reagan set out for Hollywood to break into the movies, but found better work as president of the Screen Actors Guild. From 1947 through 1961, Reagan steered the guild through the Hollywood Blacklist era. As a two-term U.S. president, Ronald Reagan defined the evils of Communism and sought to hasten the fall of the Soviet Union. For decades, the Berlin Wall stood as the most durable symbol of the Cold War. And even though it fell after Reagan’s presidency, the world-changing event was attributed to Reagan’s position toward the Soviet Union.

Bobby Fischer, a chess player who became a surprising Cold War champion.
Left: Bobby Fischer in a high school photo. Right: Bobby Fischer prior to a match.

Bobby Fischer

The unlikely Cold Warrior who won the World Championship in Reykjavik, Iceland in 1972 over Boris Spassky, becoming the first non-Soviet chess champion since 1937, was a Chicago native. He returned to the United States a hero, having finally beaten the Soviets at their own game and dominance for decades in the sport. In a strange twist, Bobby Fischer’s mother, Regina, a United States citizen, had been suspected as a Soviet agent. In 1933, Regina and her then-husband, Gerhardt Fischer fled to Moscow from Germany. With instability in Europe, Regina returned to the United States, but her husband was denied. With the Cold War raging, the FBI would watch Regina carefully for the next twenty-five years.

Fidel Castro, leader of Cuba during the Cold War and beyond.
Cuban leader Fidel Castro.

Chicago Mob Versus Cuban Commies

In later 1950s, on the island of Cuba, Fidel Castro’s guerrilla warfare campaign and propaganda efforts succeeded in eroding the power of Batista’s military and popular support. Ultimately, his revolutionary cause gave him complete authority over Cuba’s new government. But the United States could not allow a country with growing ties to the Soviet Union to flourish forty miles from Florida. And anyone who’s seen The Godfather Part II knows the mob had lucrative investments in Cuban casinos. In one of the wildest Cold War stories, the Kennedy administration and the CIA recruited Sam Giancana and other mobsters to assassinate Fidel Castro. The mob boss Giancana had connections to the CIA, and in 1960, the CIA recruited ex-FBI agent Robert Maheu to meet with the West Coast representative of the Chicago mob, Johnny Roselli. When Maheu contacted Roselli, Maheu hid that he was sent by the CIA, instead portraying himself an advocate for international corporations. He offered $150,000 to have Castro killed, but Roselli refused any pay. Roselli introduced Maheu to two men he called Sam Gold (Giancana) and Joe. “Joe” was Santo Trafficante Jr., the Tampa/Miami syndicate boss and one of the most powerful mobsters in pre-revolution. The mobsters instigated some third-party attempts at assassination, but the Bay of Pigs invasion in April 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis the following year shut down further mob hits on Castro.

Cold War Illinois

By Christopher Sturdevant

From Walt Disney and Ronald Reagan to chess matches and Nike missiles, trace the Illinois roots of prominent players in the longest and costliest conflict in American history. Discover a mobster’s involvement in assassination attempts of Cuban leader Fidel Castro and how the nuclear age began at a college football field on Chicago’s south side. Visit the graves of Communist Party leaders and the high-alert heritage of military bases across the state. Local author Christopher Sturdevant, chairman of the Midwest Chapter of the Cold War Museum, follows up his look into Cold War Wisconsin with its neighbor to the south in a fascinating tale of Illinois’s role in the fight between East and West.

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Higher Up On That Hog: Serving Pig in Louisiana

Yesterday's America Editorial Team
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The lowly pelican is prominently featured on the Louisiana state flag. While this unique Gulf Coast bird is ubiquitous along the state’s waterways, is it really the most popular animal? It turns out the the pig has a better case for state exaltation. Consider all the Cajun dishes that feature the other white meat.


Since Louisiana’s early days, pork has reigned supreme at pig roasts, believed to have been hosted by Native Americans, although they can also be traced to African, French, German and Spanish cultures. A wooden frame was built for smoking the meat over an open fire. The group of people who eventually became known as Acadians or “Cajuns” spent difficult years finding a permanent home. In the early 1600s, they were transplanted from rural areas of western France and sailed to coastal Canada to establish the French colony called Acadia. Thousands relocated to southern Louisiana, where Cajuns developed their unique lifestyle. The most notable aspect of Cajun culture is found in their cuisine, which mixes influences from other cultures within Louisiana, specifically Spanish, German, Italian, Creole, Native American, African and French. Even though Louisiana natural bayous and coastline demanded fishing, the main source for meat became the pig.


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Boudin is a savory combo derived from a variety of pig parts, including liver and intestines. Once the chopped-up boneless pork meat is cooked, seasoning, onions and cooked rice are mixed in. Boudin resembles a sausage, though it includes the addition of seasonings and rice as filler. To further change the dish, you can squeeze the meat out of the casing, form it into a patty, pan fry on both sides and serve it with a fried egg on top. Louisiana cane syrup is often drizzled over the treasured snack. Variations of boudin have been created, as it can be smoked or fried as a “boudin ball” similar to a meatball. Boudin is so versatile it has appeared in Vietnamese dumplings and Texan kolaches.

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Cracklings, cracklins or gratons are made from either pork skin or pork belly and fried until crispy. They turn golden brown on the outside and are tender inside, like a pork French fry. Adding crackling bits to a cornbread batter is popular.Twice-fried cracklings get a generous sprinkling of cayenne pepper. 

Grillades are cuts of pork marinated in spices and herbs for grilling or slow cooking. Added to grits, it becomes a popular Southern brunch dish. 

Hogshead Cheese is a Cajun pork pâté that really isn’t cheese but rather a meat jelly. A variety of pig parts, such as the head and pig’s feet, are boiled for hours to prepare this jellied meat, which can be sliced and served on crackers.

Jambalaya is a one-pot dish that includes meat and rice. Anything goes in the pot, usually andouille, chicken, beef, ham, pork bits or shrimp along with vegetables, spices and rice.

Ponce is the stomach of a pig stuffed with sausage meat. Also known as gog, hog maw or chaudin, it resembles a roast and may be cooked in an oven or smoker. 

Roux is the glue for many Cajun dishes. The captured hog lard acts as a thickening agent for gumbo, fricassee, and etouffee. The best roux ingredients are equal parts hog lard and flour.

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Tasso is a smoked Cajun ham made from the pork shoulder and cured in a salt box. Some versions are smoked and heavily spiced. Once the ham is chopped in smaller pieces, it makes its way to gumbos an jambalayas.

Images from Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade: A Parade Like No Other

Yesterday's America Editorial Team
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Arguably the most American holiday is Thanksgiving. The annual festival is celebrated at millions of tables across the nation. And while the holiday celebrates home, family, and the changing seasons, there is one component of Thanksgiving that takes place outside the home: the Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade. From its beginnings in 1924 through its present-day annual slow march down the streets of Manhattan, the parade has delighted all who line the route or tune in on television. Throughout the decades, gigantic balloons, marching bands, and celebrity-decked floats fill the parade, culminating with the first seasonal appearance of Santa Claus himself!


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In 1924, R. H. Macy and Company introduced the Macy’s Christmas Parade (Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade started out as a Christmas pageant).
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Helium filed balloons became increasingly popular in the 1930s.


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Advertisement for the 1934 parade.


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After several years of no parade due to wartime austerity, the Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade came roaring back, bigger than ever.


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Characters from movies and television, like Popeye and Mighty Mouse, were invited to the parade in the 1950s.


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In the 1960s, offbeat television characters Underdog and Bullwinkle floated the parade route.


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Whether created in ink or felt, you know you’ve made it when you get your invitation to be in the Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade. Check out one of the 1970s’ breakout TV stars Kermit the Frog. Soon, his pals on Sesame Street would have their own float, with Santa tagging along for a ride.


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Comic book super heroes were big hits, and in 1987, Spider-Man joined a decades-old Superman in the parade.


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Hunting for History in Queens

Yesterday's America Editorial Team
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Queens, that famous New York borough, has lived in the shadows of New York City for centuries. While its neighbor to the west has hundreds, if not thousands, of historic sites and landmarks, Queens is filled with plenty of history itself. Queens was settled in the seventeenth century, and quite in contrast with nearby city of New York. It wasn’t until ferries were replaced with bridges and tunnels that Queens became a part of the Big Apple. Despite the merger, Queens has retained much of its own flavor, culture, and history.


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“God save us all!”
So just how far back does history go in Queens? How about to the Revolutionary War. In late August 1776, just as the British were sieging Long Island, American general Nathaniel Woodhull arrived in Jamaica, Queens, to lead a company of militiamen. Their orders were to secure 1,400 head of cattle. While George Washington was fighting the nearby Battle of Long Island, Woodhull sent his men to safety. Waiting on word from Washington, the solo general was captured by the British. Upon his surrender, Woodhull declined to swear allegiance to the crown, and infamously uttered “God save us all,” which inspired the wrath of one of the British officers. Woodhull nearly bled to death, and later had his arm amputated. He died from his injuries weeks later. The martyred general is memorialized with a cannon and a granite block placed on the grounds of the incident, as well as Woodhull Avenue.


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Motor Parkway
At the dawn of the twentieth century, the automobile was starting to become popular, and the grandson of industrialist Cornelius Vanderbilt, William K. Vanderbilt was an early adapter, and loved to race them. But getting a car to high speeds on an unpaved road was impossible, so the rich kid helped create a seventy-mile-long road through central Long Island, from Queens all the way to Riverhead. In 1908, ground was broken for the world’s first concrete highway, albeit limited-access. 

“All hail, those pioneers—Mr. Vanderbilt and his associates—who for the motorists of America and the world are thus blazing the trail for the motor roads, the motor streets, and the motor bridges of the future.” — The president of the Automobile Club of America

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World’s Fair
How does a thriving community make room for the biggest party on the planet? In 1936, Corona, Queens picked a swampy garbage dump for the future fairground. By March 1937, the site was ready for construction, and after the pavilions were built and 10,000 trees, 500,000 hedges, 400,000 pansies, and 1,000,000 tulips were planted, the World’s Fair was ready for guests. Ultimately, sixty foreign countries were represented, including the Soviet Union. The 1939-40 New York World’s Fair opened on April 30, 1939, and closed relatively quickly on October 27, 1940. Even though twenty-five million visited in the first season, the Fair was a money loser. As World War II loomed, steel from the temporary structures was needed for the war effort. Just a few years after the last guests passed through the gates, hardly a trace remained. The site became a city park, and the New York City Pavilion building became the popular Queens Museum.


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World’s Fair, the Sequel
Hoping to outdo the previous New York Fair in 1939, the 1964–65 New York World’s Fair opened on April 22, 1964 to great delight. The centerpiece was the 900,000-pound steel Unisphere, which replaced the 1939 Perisphere on the same foundations, and still stands as the focal point today. Other remaining structures include the undulating concrete and glass Hall of Science, which was fully opened for the ’65 fair season, and the one-hundred-foot-high New York State Pavilion with its three towers and elliptical ring. Also still standing is the 120-foot-high Terrace on the Park building, which was originally the heliport for the fair. Today the site is dripping in irony — the Space Age architecture and imagery now feels more 1960s than the far off future.

What to read based on what you’ve watched

Christen Thompson
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What to read based on what you’ve watched

A go-to book guide inspired by five of the most popular shows of 2020 (so far).

tl;dr: If you loved Fear City: New York vs. The Mafia on Netflix, you should read Manhattan Mafia Guide, Murder Inc, A Guide to Gangsters, Murderers and Weirdos of New York City’s Lower East Side, or New York City Gangland

#1 Fear City: New York vs The Mafia (Netflix)

This three-part true crime documentary series chronicles the turbulent time in the 1970s when New York City was ruled with a bloody fist by five mafia families–until a group of federal agents tried the unthinkable: taking them down. 

If you couldn’t get enough of this high-octane history, read these:

Manhattan Mafia Guide: Hits, Homes & HeadquartersA Guide to Gangsters, Murderers and Weirdos of New York City's Lower East SideMurder, Inc.: The Mafia's Hit Men in New York CityNew York City Gangland

tl;dr: If you loved Fear City: New York vs. The Mafia on Netflix, you should read Manhattan Mafia Guide, Murder Inc, A Guide to Gangsters, Murderers and Weirdos of New York City’s Lower East Side, or New York City Gangland

#2 I’ll Be Gone in the Dark (HBO MAX)

The Visalia Ransacker. The Original Night Stalker. The Diamond Knot Killer: these are the names given to the perpetrators of crimes all over California in the 1970s and 1980s, cases of rape and murder that sat unsolved for over 40 years until 2018 when a familial DNA match led to a startling realization: they were all the same man.

A six-part documentary series based on the book of the same name,I’ll Be Gone In The Dark explores writer Michelle McNamara’s investigation into the dark world of this violent predator, the man she dubbed “The Golden State Killer.”  

If you couldn’t get enough of this fascinating documentary or the book that inspired it, read these:

Murder in Visalia: The Coin Dealer KillerSan Diego Police: Case FilesMurder & Mayhem in the Crescenta ValleyMurder in Pleasanton: Tina Faelz and the Search for Justice

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