Marilyn Monroe, Humphrey Bogart, and Laurence Olivier are three of the biggest names in the history of Hollywood, and they all have one thing in common: they emerged from Hollywood’s Golden Age. Between the 1910s and 1960s, Hollywood experienced an influx of experimental filmmaking – these were revolutionary years, filled with exceptional talent, new camera technology, and more freedom for scipt writers. While the years of a thriving Hollywood industry seemed they would last forever, they did inevitably come to an end. This is the rise and fall of Hollywood’s Golden Age.
Film in its Earliest Years
Marilyn Monroe, a star of Hollywood’s Golden Age. Reprinted from Mount Sinai by Ann M. Becker, courtesy of Magnum Photos (pg. 89, Arcadia Publishing, 2003).
Before the big screen was invented, theatrical entertainment was confined to a stage. In the late 1800s, early filmmakers wanted to shift this method of storytelling in favor of projected images on a screen. However, the first films were still forced to the confines of a small stage and shot at an unmoving wide angle. Cutting to different scenes was limited, and these performances were also silent, as audio technology had not yet evolved.
By the 1910s, filmmakers learned how to alter space and time on screen. Or really, they used varying angles, and created multiple sets to portray spatial and temporal movement in ways that real time stage acting could not, a breakthrough in the history of film. Filmmakers like David W. Griffith built independent film companies and began experimenting with such techniques, creating some of the earliest masterpieces in film. In 1913 alone, The Mothering Heart, Ingeborg Holm, and L’enfant de Paris reached new heights in cinematic storytelling.
In 1915, Griffith released The Birth of a Nation, an epic silent drama adapted from the novel The Clansmen. Filled with monumental filmmaking breakthroughs, it became a staple of the industry, and set the tone for future films. After The Birth of a Nation, America solidified itself as a leader in innovative film techniques.
A New Age of Cinema
Bette Davis being fit for a film costume in 1932. Reprinted from Early Warner Bros. Studios by E.J. Stephens and Marc Wanamaker (pg. 68, Arcadia Publishing, 2010).
In 1920, the invention of sound in movies, and the introduction of the studio system, once again revolutionized the filmmaking landscape. These were the earliest large motion picture studios, complete with their own resources to create feature films. By the 1920s, actors, actresses, and filmmakers who had worked on independent projects throughout the earliest years of film joined up with one of these studios to begin their careers as on-screen performers.
Though there is some discrepancy of when the sound era officially began, the 1927 release of The Jazz Singer, the first movie with sound, signified a radical shift in the film industry. By 1929, nearly every movie released used sound. During this time, there were a handful of genres whose motifs and plotlines were followed closely: western, musical, slapstick comedy, animation, and biographical pictures.
MGM Films, Twentieth Century Fox, and Paramount were the leading companies producing most of the decade’s major films. However, with the conjoining of sound and pictures, many film critics argue the artistic quality of the films during this era suffered. It took until the late 1930s for cinema to start producing films with the same creative aesthetics as they did while still silent. But once they did, film cemented itself as a foundational form of storytelling.
Developments in Film
In the year 1939, filmmaking again peaked with the releases of Wuthering Heights, Gone with the Wind, The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, The Wizard of Oz, and more. All films released during these years were defined by advancements in three levels: film devices, plot, and technology.
First, film devices like continuity editing helped slice up scenes, giving viewers varying perspectives of time and space. Likewise, the 180-degree rule had filmmakers pretend there was a line running along the 180-degree axis of each shot, informing where the camera should be placed to be aimed at the center of action. Other important film techniques included the crosscut, which revealed simultaneous action in different locations, and axial cut, which contained no cutting, instead moving in and out of the scene.
Second, movies began to adopt clear plots. The general narrative logic was driven by relatable human characters, and established by a clearly marked beginning, middle, and end. In this form, the narrative is structured by a standard cause and effect formula. Cinematic time was also created, which introduced flashbacks into the story.
Lastly, the technology in movies became more developed. Some improvements included artificial lighting, low-key lighting, and fire effects. By playing with shadows and light, filmmakers could shift a light-hearted mood in a scene to a sinister one. As a result of these advancements, films got longer, and plotlines more complex. Stories that were once confined to paper as books or plays were transformed visually to be consumed by wider audiences.
The Golden Age Comes to an End
Hollywood’s Golden Age finally came to an end due to two main factors: antitrust actions, and the invention of television.
The iconic Hollywood sign. Reprinted from Hollywood 1940 – 2008 by Marc Wanamaker (pg. 19, Arcadia Publishing, 2009).
For decades, it was common practice for major film companies to purchase movie theaters, which would only show their company’s produced films. This type of monopoly forced Assistant Attorney General Thurman Arnold to take up a case against the eight major Hollywood corporations at the time. He claimed they were in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act which regulates competition among large corporations.
As a result of the court case, every Hollywood corporation signed a consent decree agreeing to release their hold on spaces that showed only their films in theaters nationwide, to stop the pre-sale of films in various theater districts, to prohibit film companies from scheduling more than five films in theaters, and finally, to establish a board to enforce these rules.
As these rules began to take effect, Hollywood started revising and releasing the contracts of their employees, thereby completely rewiring the infrastructure of the industry. The traits that made each company individual vanished with the overhaul of their creative teams. The shift ultimately led to fewer movies released, with larger budgets for each individual film.
In addition, televisions, invented first in 1927, had become increasingly popular in the homes of average Americans. The growing popularity of television shows presented traditional movie theaters with steep competition. This, combined with the new antitrust regulations, meant there was less money fueling the industry, thus creating a decline in filmmaking and profits.
Hollywood’s Golden Age were pivotal years in the history of filmmaking. They established much of the technology that was built upon to create today’s films. While it may not have lasted more than a few decades, it had an indelible impact on the entertainment industry as a whole. A short, but crucial part of the development of film, the Golden Age of Hollywood are years that are revered in filmmaking history.
In the world of American politics, there’s almost no president that hasn’t become embroiled in some type of misconduct. From the XYZ Affair of John Adams to Nixon’s Watergate, presidents are no strangers to controversy. But it was in the 20th century that Americans saw some of the biggest presidential scandals. Read on for just five of the biggest controversies to rock D.C. in the 1900s!
Watergate
President Richard Nixon and family. Reprinted from San Clemente by Jennifer A. Garey and the San Clemente Historical Society, courtesy of Pat Bouman (pg. 120, Arcadia Publishing, 2010).
Perhaps the most famous of any Presidential scandal, Watergate was the name used to describe the cover-up of President Richard Nixon’s robbery and spying on the national headquarters of the Democratic Party in the Watergate Hotel. First discovered in 1972, the cover-up and lying from a President was unprecedented at the time, and the large-scale conspiracy ultimately saw over 60 government workers charged. To avoid the process of impeachment and almost certain removal from office, Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974.
The Pentagon Papers
President Lyndon Johnson and his wife, Lady Bird. Reprinted from Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park by Kelly Carper Polden and the Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park (pg. 12, Arcadia Publishing, 2011).
Although they came to light during the Nixon administration, the Pentagon Papers (or the Report of the Office of the Secretary of Defense Vietnam Task Force) was a series of reports on the actions of the Department of Defense in Vietnam between 1945 and 1967. Leaked by military analyst Daniel Ellsburg to The New York Times in 1971, the Pentagon Papers revealed that the government, under the direction of President Lyndon B. Johnson, had expanded their attacks from Vietnam to bordering Cambodia and Laos. In addition, the papers revealed attacks in Vietnam that were not disclosed to the general media. Although the government originally sought to keep the papers from being published, they were later declassified and released in entirety in 2011.
The Ohio Gang
President Warren G. Harding. Reprinted from Plymouth by James W. Baker (pg. 58, Arcadia Publishing, 2002).
A nickname for a group of politicians and industrialists, the Ohio Gang were close confidantes and advisors of President Warren G. Harding. Many of these men had first met Harding in Ohio, but followed him to Washington D.C. once he’d won the Presidency. The men were marred by a series of financial scandals during Harding’s time in office, including the infamous Teapot Dome scandal, when Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall took a bribe from industrialist Harry Sinclair for the Teapot Dome federal oil reserves. This ultimately led to Fall’s imprisonment, and the resignation of another secretary. After Harding’s death while in office, the majority of the gang was removed from power by his successor, Calvin Coolidge.
The Impeachment of Bill Clinton
President Bill Clinton. Reprinted from New Castle: Chappaqua and Millwood by The Chappaqua History Committee and Gray Williams (pg. 6, Arcadia Publishing, 2006).
The second President to be impeached (following President Andrew Johnson), President Bill Clinton faced charges of perjury and obstruction of justice after lying about his affair with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. Clinton’s affair was sensational in the 1990s, leading to widespread media coverage. Although impeached by the House of Representatives, Clinton was later found not guilty by a Senate trial, and he was allowed to finish his term in office.
Iran-Contra Affair
President Ronald Reagan. Reprinted from Hollywood on the Potomac by Jason Killan Meath, courtesy of the Ronald Reagan Library (pg. 98, Arcadia Publishing, 2009).
A huge mar on the Reagan administration, the Iran-Contra Affair broke in 1985. Against the decree of an arms embargo, government officials helped send weapons to Iran, in exchange for help with the release of American hostages in Lebanon. This money from the deal was then sent to support Contra insurgents in Nicaragua, who were hoping to overthrow the incumbent government. This diversion of funds was also outlawed by Congress. Although Reagan initially denied the existence of any sort of deal, as more information came to light, he eventually admitted to the shady deal. Ultimately, many of the conspirators were pardoned by later President George H.W. Bush, an action that became a scandal during that Presidency as well.
When considering those who most impacted the American Revolution, we think of men like George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and other leading Founding Fathers. However, these characters of history were not the only ones to leave their mark on the birth of the nation. Women played an important role both on the battlefield and at home. Their influences were seen in politics, in the military, in business, and at home. Without their efforts, America might not have achieved its status as a sovereign nation. While there are countless women who helped shape the revolution, these are 6 who have forever left their mark on history of the nation.
Molly Pitcher
A 19th century painting depicting Molly Pitcher. Reprinted from Hidden History of New Jersey at War by Joseph G. Bilby, James M. Madden and Harry Ziegler, courtesy of Monmouth Battlefield State Park (pg. 29, The History Press, 2014).
Images of women of the American Revolution often appear as Molly Pitcher standing behind a cannon on the battlefront. Today, it’s believed that “Molly Pitcher” was the nickname given to a woman who made frequent appearances on the frontlines. Her real name is thought to have been Mary Ludwig Hays McCauley. She joined her husband at Valley Forge, where she began earning her stripes as a figure of the revolution. Throughout the resistance, stories of Pitcher’s acts of heroism on the battlefield filtered into the lives of women everywhere. She became a symbol for women to do their part in the fight.
Phillis Wheatley
Born in West Africa, Phillis Wheatley was sold into slavery before she turned ten years old. In America, she was purchased by the Wheatley family, who immediately recognized her literary talents. They taught her to read and write, and encouraged her to pursue a life of literature. She wrote Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral in 1773, which earned her the praise of leaders in both America and England. The book was a collection of 39 poems that questioned the morality of slavery in the States. Wheatley was the first African American woman poet in America, and paved the ways for several writers to follow.
Mercy Otis Warren was a leading voice in the resistance against British rule over the colonies both before and during the American Revolution. Her poems and political essays published before the war relayed the discontent with British rule, and urged her fellow Americans to join in the fight to become an independent nation. In 1788, she published a pamphlet under the pseudonym “A Columbian Patriot,” which opposed the passing of the Constitution, but was in favor of the Bill of Rights. When the war ended, Warren published a 3-volume collection detailing the history of the Revolutionary War. It was the first publication of its kind and the first written by a woman.
Sibyl Ludington
You’ve likely heard of Paul Revere’s midnight ride to warn American troops and citizens that a British army was approaching. Sibyl Ludington was his younger, female counterpart. During an intense rainstorm in the spring of 1777, Ludington rode twice as far as Revere through Putnam and Dutchess Counties in New York. She announced a recent British attack that had taken place in Danbury, Connecticut, and gathered militiamen of these counties to aid in the fight against this surprise attack. Her heroic efforts earned her a statue in Carmel, New York, erected by the Daughters of the American Revolution.
Abigail Adams
Abigail Adams. Reprinted from Quincy by William J. and Elaine A. Pepe (pg. 10, Arcadia Publishing, 2008).
Often considered one of the founding members of the country herself, Abigail Adams was the wife of President John Adams. John frequently sought her opinion while making decisions for the fate of the country. Abigail was one of the earliest speakers for women of the 18th century. In her letters to John, she spoke of her dissatisfaction with the lives of women as they stood in the 1700s. She advocated for equal educational opportunities and the option to own property. In her 1776 letter to John while he was attending the Continental Congress, she reminded him to keep the women in consideration when designing the structure of the nation. Today, she is remembered of one of the leading figures of the American Revolution.
Nancy Hart
Nancy Hart was most known for her rampages against American Loyalists in the Georgia backcountry. Like Molly Pitcher, modern historians have little primary source evidence to support if Hart was fact or fiction. She was thought to have migrated to the fertile grounds of northeast Georgia, where she built a life for herself living off the land. Ferocious and vivacious, she quickly gained the nickname “The Iron Lady.” Her reputation reveals her as a savvy frontierswoman, known for outsmarting British soldiers and even shooting some.
These women of the American Revolution left their mark on history through their courage and influence in one of the country’s most harrowing times. Their voices proved outstanding, as they were the earliest representatives of women’s rights activism, and revealed what women can accomplish when they step from their assigned societal roles. The impact they left on the formation of the United States is one to be remembered and cherished.
Coffee shops that look like spaceships, tropical landscaping, and Tiki galore: if this image sets the stage for any place and time, it would be mid-20th century California. What we call Tiki culture emerged in America’s “Golden Age of Pop Culture,” when everything was unapologetically kitschy and foreign lands were romanticized.
The rise of tiki in California came from a variety of factors, primarily the state’s close proximity to Polynesia — Hawaii’s eventual statehood in 1959 — and the many Hollywood depictions of a tropical paradise. Despite debate surrounding cultural appropriation, tiki culture lives on today through original and revitalized bars, restaurants, and events.
Defining California tiki culture isn’t as straightforward a task as it might seem — it’s an aesthetic, a multisensory feeling, and as Henderson points out in the preface of his book, a language that serves as a tool for expression. Forged from a culture of escapism, tiki represented a slow-paced, tropical alternative to the demands of modern society:
“It was an expression of the yearnings and anxieties of Americans trying to find their place in an expanding economy that often left men and women bereft of meaning. Americans constructed tiki palaces and festooned their backyards with palms and torches in an effort to create a visceral, aural, tactile escape to a world that never existed except in their dreams: an island paradise where the pressures of the gray flannel suit and the house-beautiful tyrannies of women’s magazines could be set aside.” – excerpted from “California Tiki”
Objectively, tiki culture is defined by the post-World War II era’s obsession with Polynesia, beginning with the tiki bar and wrapping up with the advent of the hippie movement of the 1960s. At its core, tiki culture is defined by a theme of Polynesian elements, including tiki carvings, palm trees, torches, fruity cocktails, bright colors and plenty of rattan furniture.
Pop culture scholars can trace the impetus of the tiki revolution back to the 1933 opening of the tiki-themed restaurant named Don’s Beachcomber, which later became Don the Beachcomber in Hollywood. Founded by a man named Ernie Gantt (nicknamed Donn Beach), he is now credited with creating the first tiki bar in the United States.
Gantt, a bootlegger during prohibition, developed Don the Beachcomber after taking the cheapest possible alcohol at the time — rum — and weaving it into the fiber of his establishment, including the legendary cocktail list. The bar and restaurant were a hit; it eventually expanded to 20 restaurants and spurred many copycat clubs.
There are a few more milestone events that paved the metaphorical way for America’s tropical interest. The first was the release of the 1948 book, Kon-Tiki, Thor Heyerdahl’s epic account of crossing the Pacific from South America to the Polynesian islands — a long and very elaborate journey designed to prove that South Americans could have traveled to Polynesia in pre-Columbian times. The second, of course, was World War II itself, when American soldiers brought home stories of sunshine, turquoise waters and a laid-back lifestyle from Bora Bora and Hawaii.
The Great Tiki Bar Takeover
While Don the Beachcomber settled in to become an American institution, more and more tiki bars and restaurants popped up around the country. Just three years after Gantt opened his Hollywood flagship establishment, an Oakland proprietor named Victor Bergeron followed suit by transforming his existing business into a tiki-themed restaurant. The iconic Trader Vic’s eventually earned a franchising deal with Hilton and opened locations all over the world.
Actor Stephen Crane started a chain of upscale tiki bars and restaurants called Kon Tiki Ports, which was Chicago’s largest restaurant in volume and grossed more than $2.3 million in 1966. Despite the fact that Bergeron and Crane admitted they had learned the tricks of the tiki trade from Gantt — which is why he is widely considered the father of the American tiki bar — there was a bit of territorialism and conflict among these tiki kings.
The debut of the mai tai, which is considered to be the most iconic tiki cocktail, spurred a feud when both Bergeron and Gantt claimed to have invented the drink. Though the recipes were similar, Bergeron’s was less complex — made with rum, lime juice, orange liqueur and orgeat syrup — and he is more often credited with the signature cocktail.
Beyond Bars and Restaurants
Tiki bars and restaurants maintained their popularity throughout the 1950s and ‘60s, complementing other related subcultures and acting as a backdrop for California surf culture and tiki-inspired films and TV shows. It was during this time that Southern California saw the emergence of tiki music, which can be broken down into two primary genres: exotica music and surf music.
The former was defined as the “music of plants and palm trees,” relying heavily on percussion and Hawaiian instruments like ukulele and steel guitar. It was played by big acts, including Les Baxter and Martin Denny.
Tiki is closely linked with California surf culture, and a big part of that is due to surf music, the soundtrack you probably most closely associate with tiki culture today. This kind of music, made famous by acts like Dick Dale and the Del-Tones and the Surfaris, features a guitar-heavy sound with rhythm hand-picking and instrumental techniques first used in an attempt to recreate the sound of waves. At the same time surf culture was ramping up, Polynesia made appearances in major blockbuster films, like the Elvis movie “Blue Hawaii” and “Gidget Goes Hawaiian.”
The Polynesian pop obsession maintained major popularity into the 1960s, but it started to fall from fashion as that decade waned. Henderson and Foshko blame the Woodstock generation as the primary tiki killer — the “free love” generation rejected the theme as old-fashioned, politically incorrect and in bad taste.
“This ‘abrupt wane in popularity’ can be traced to three major narratives that called the salience of Tiki into question: the natural replacement of the Greatest Generation with the baby boomers, American preoccupation with the Vietnam War and a growing interest in ‘authentic’ cultural experience.”
– excerpted from California Tiki
Riding the Four Waves of Tiki
Tiki culture can be divided into four distinct generations. The interest in tiki culture that dominated in the middle of the 20th century — specifically, between the 1920s and 1960s, ending with the Baby Boomers’ rejection of the sub-culture — is classified by tiki historians (yes, they exist) as the first wave of tiki.
The second and third waves erupted in the late 1970s and mid-1990s, respectively. The fourth wave was ignited at the turn of the millennium after a set of tiki-related books were published. As you’ll see below from the many modern tiki bars and restaurants still in operation, we’re well into a fifth wave, with a total resurgence underway.
Iconic Tiki Kitsch: Where to Find the Best Examples
Many of the original tiki bars and restaurants have been destroyed to make way for new establishments, but there are still a few great examples standing. The primary hallmarks of original tiki are the presence of an A-frame structure (exceedingly rare in modern times), bridges to cross within the establishment, plenty of jungle foliage, wall-hanging masks and weapons and floor-to-ceiling tiki texture with exotic woods, bamboo, rattan and tapa cloth. Here are a few of the original tiki bars still in operation.
Trader Vic’s, Emeryville — The flagship Trader Vic’s in Emeryville isn’t the building where the mai tai was invented, but it does sit on the location of Trader Vic’s original restaurant. Still, the Emeryville Trader Vic’s is considered the first establishment, so it’s a must-visit for tiki enthusiasts. The restaurant has a traditional tiki interior, while the large patio overlooks the San Francisco Bay.
Trad’r Sam’s, San Francisco — Located on Geary Boulevard in Central Richmond, Trad’r Sam’s is like any other San Francisco dive bar. What makes it so special is the fact that it’s the oldest, longest-operating tiki bar in the world, opened in 1937. Though it’s not over-the-top tiki kitsch, you’ll still see rattan and bamboo remnants at Trad’r Sam’s.
Bali Hai Restaurant, San Diego — Located on the northern tip of Shelter Island, Bali Hai has been a San Diego mainstay for over 50 years. The Tiki Oasis, the longest-running tiki festival in the world in San Diego, is credited for bringing interest back to the establishment. If you stop by Bali Hai, make sure to say “aloha” to Mr. Bali Hai, the giant wooden head that tops the building.
Royal Hawaiian, Laguna Beach — Founded in 1947, Royal Hawaiian still maintains old-school charm, but it has been refurbished into a “tiki-chic” style. If you’re looking for a fancier tiki experience but still want to dine and drink in a classic environment, this Laguna Beach mainstay is an essential stop. “Tiki California” features a great interview with the creative co-owner and creative director at Royal Hawaiian.
Tonga Hut, Hollywood — Not to be confused with Tonga Room — a historical San Francisco tiki bar that’s also still in operation today — Tonga Hut bills itself as the oldest tiki bar in L.A. The laid-back cocktail bar has been open since 1958 and still serves as a favorite neighborhood bar.
Tonga Room and Hurricane Bar, San Francisco — This 1945 example in San Francisco’s Fairmont Hotel is one of the longest-running tiki bars in California. It features an incredible tiki-themed interior, complete with a central pool and a floating bar. The bar was built around the “Fairmont Plunge,” a 75-foot indoor swimming pool constructed in 1929.
A Modern-Day Resurgence
The authors of California Tiki note that, while the earlier tiki generations focused on escapism, today’s tiki is about reclaiming the American birthright and taking pride in the creative expression of postwar America.
“Modern tiki is an expression of nostalgia for the time of confidence, happiness and style,” they write. “While it’s unlikely that we’ll see a tiki resurgence of mid-century proportions, there are still some new players in the game that are working hard to keep tiki alive to a smaller degree.”
One way that tiki enthusiasts strive to keep the theme afloat is through modern themed events, including conventions and festivals. The largest and longest-running tiki festival is Tiki Oasis in San Diego, which is held for a weekend every August.
Tiki Oasis emphasizes tiki preservation — it has helped save a number of Polynesia-themed establishments. It also features educational symposiums during the day and live music at night, with signature cocktails mixed by famous bartenders. A similar festival, called Tiki Caliente, takes place in Palm Springs once a year.
Finally, you’ll see some great examples of modern-day tiki at some of the Polynesian revival restaurants and bars throughout the country. Though they’re not original, many of these spots are meticulously decorated to honor authentic, mid-century tiki themes. From the recreated Don the Beachcomber in Huntington Beach — which recently announced that it would close its doors for good due to increasing rent — to the iconic Trader Sam’s Enchanted Tiki Bar at Disneyland, there’s no shortage of tiki goodness in Southern California and throughout the country.
Cheers to Another Wave of Tiki!
While the wave of tiki culture undoubtedly reached a crescendo in the middle of the last century, there are still plenty of people working to preserve and perpetuate its themes and style. The new wave is meant to acknowledge the subculture’s flaws — notably, the fact that it is rife with cultural appropriation — and to emphasize that tiki culture was borrowed from many unique cultures, especially Hawaiian, Brazilian, Caribbean and American.
Even today, tiki culture remains a symbol of adventure and escape, two things still very much in demand. And we think that’s worthy of a mai tai!
If you’re a fan of tiki culture and classic Americana, pick up a copy of California Tikitoday!
Off the shores of the American coast, the wrecks of ill-fated seafaring vessels can be found miles beneath the water’s surface. Many of these shipwrecks, discovered over the centuries by avid underwater explorers, have contained significant amounts of gold, precious artifacts, and other treasures, worth millions today. Here, we talk about five of these valuable famous shipwrecks off the US coast.
Nuestra Señora de Atocha (Our Lady of Atocha): The World’s Most Valuable Shipwreck
Wrecked off the coast of the Florida Keys in 1622, the Nuestra Señora de Atocha is the most valuable shipwreck to ever be recovered to date. A Spanish ship originally bound from Havana, Cuba to Spain, the Atocha had spent the summer of 1622 in Veracruz, Mexico loading and logging a hefty amount of treasure, ranging from copper and gems to gold and indigo from the Spanish colonies.
However, shortly after the Atocha launched from port, a major hurricane caught the ship outside of Havana, Cuba on September 4, 1622. The hurricane destroyed the Atocha, which sank 56 feet beneath the surface on September 6, 1622, along with several other ships in the Spanish fleet. Only three sailors and two slaves survived the Atocha’s sinking, clinging to the ship’s mizzen-mast.
A treasurer salvager with gold and silver bars recovered from the Atocha shipwreck. Reprinted from Florida’s Shipwrecks by Michael Barnette courtesy of Robert Weller (pg. 31, Arcadia Publishing, 2008).
Unsurprisingly, the treasure aboard the Atocha also sank with the ship, which the Spanish were eager to recover. Sending slaves down to the shipwreck in a brass chamber called a diving bell, slaves were expected to exit the diving bell, retrieve items from the ship, and return to the bell before being pulled to the surface. The Spanish made many of these attempts, and the practice was not only usually lethal for the slaves (who were written off by ship captain’s as “business costs”), but also succeeded in recovering less than half of the ship’s cargo.
After the Spanish ceased these diving missions, the Atocha shipwreck was lost until 1985, when treasure hunters Mel Fisher and Rinley Ricard rediscovered the wreck off the coast of the Florida Keys. While some of the ship’s most valuable cargo (such as rare Muzo emeralds) are still missing, Fisher and Ricard were able to recover both hard to find and previously unknown coins, amongst other artifacts.
Today, the Atocha is still being excavated, and new artifacts are found semi-regularly. In 2011, treasure divers were able to find an emerald ring from the wreck, which was valued at $500,000 USD alone. They also found spoons and other artifacts. Currently holding a Guinness World Record for its recovered value (as it was carrying 40 tons of gold and silver, and 71 pounds of emeralds), the Atocha is located only 35 miles from the Florida Keys’ coast, and is a continual treasure trove for divers and fortune hunters alike.
SS Republic: American Civil War Ship
An American ship that spent time serving both the US and Confederate governments, the SS Republic sank in 1865 during a hurricane off the coast of Georgia. Originally commissioned as a merchant vessel, the Republic was trapped in the port at New Orleans, Louisiana at the beginning of the Civil War, when it was seized by the Confederacy for use as a blockade runner. It subsequently became a Union ship after New Orleans was seized by Union forces.
After the Civil War, the Republic returned to civilian voyages, carrying both passengers and cargo along a route from New York to New Orleans. On the ship’s fifth civilian voyage, it was tasked with carrying both passengers and $400,000 USD in cargo, and left port from New York bound towards Louisiana on October 20, 1865.
However, on the fifth day of the ship’s trek, disaster struck: A hurricane off the coast of Georgia damaged the ship’s hull, causing a leak, and the Republic quickly began to take on water. After this water put out the fire in the ship’s boiler, it stalled in the middle of the hurricane, and began taking on massive amounts of water, much faster than could be bailed by crew and passengers. The ship consequently sank around four in the afternoon.
Most of the passengers and crew of the Republic were luckily able to survive this catastrophe, escaping the ship on four lifeboats and a makeshift raft. They were not found until two days later, when a passing ship searching for the Republic was able to find them. While several on the raft were lost in 40 foot seas, the majority of passengers and crew survived, and were transported to Charleston, South Carolina.
As a result of the sinking, the cargo (which had mostly been hard currency in the form of coins) was lost with the ship until 2003, when a commercial archaeology company rediscovered the wreck approximately 100 miles from Savannah, Georgia. About a third of the coins that were on board the ship have been recovered, and are now valued at over $75 million USD. Many of the artifacts and coins from the Republic can be viewed in museums around the country.
SS Georgiana: The Confederacy’s Lost Shipwreck
A Confederate steamer, the SS Georgiana was rumored to be the “most powerful” ship in the Confederate fleet. Built in Scotland, the ship sailed its maiden voyage in 1863 for Charleston, South Carolina, where it was expected to be outfitted by Confederate soldiers. Able to hold between 16 and 22 guns on board, the ship would be one of the best armed vessels of its time.
However, the Georgiana was not armed with any guns on its first journey from Scotland to Charleston, which had been stored in the hold until reaching the Confederate port. Under the command of British Captain A.B. Davidson, the Georgiana approached Charleston on March 19, 1863 with little defenses, only to be met by the yacht America.
The America was a member of a Union blockade set to keep Confederate ships from reaching the Charleston harbor, and it quickly alerted nearby battleship USS Wissahickon to the Georgiana’s approach. Unfortunately for the Georgiana, the Wissahickon was armed with large guns, which quickly shot and pierced both sides of the newly minted ship’s hull.
The shots caused the Georgiana to quickly begin taking on water, and also destroyed the ship’s propeller and rudder. Captain Davidson, acknowledging that the ship had little hope of reaching port, signaled a surrender to the Union blockade before beaching the boat in just fourteen feet of water. Before the beached ship could be boarded (and its crew taken as prize in the surrender), however, Davidson purposefully sank (or scuttled) the boat, before escaping to land with his entire crew.
The loss of the Georgiana infuriated the blockade ships, who would have been able to share any reward for capturing the Confederate steamer. In response, the Wissahickon set the shipwreck on fire to prevent any looters from salvaging the ship’s cargo. After burning and taking on water for several days, the Georgiana was finally lost.
The ship’s whereabouts remained unknown until 1965, when famed underwater archaeologist E. Lee Spence discovered the wreck at just 18 years old. Found on March 19, 1965, the Georgiana was lost for exactly 102 years before its discovery.
Since then, the Georgiana has been excavated several times, and artifacts from the wreck have been valued at over $12,000,000 USD. The ship was also rumored to have about $15,000,000 USD worth of gold on board, though this has never been found. Overall, the value of the ship’s recovered and rumored cargo is believed to be approximately $50,000,000 USD.
The Whydah Gally: The First Pirate Shipwreck
Originally intended as a passenger, cargo, and slave ship, the Whydah Gally was intended for service in the Britsh Empire before it was captured during its maiden voyage by notorious pirate Samuel “Black Sam” Bellamy. Bellamy, who had turned to piracy during the fall of 1716, was rumored to have become a pirate to build a fortune to marry Maria Hallett, a young woman he met while visiting relatives in Cape Cod.
Although there is little historical record of Maria, it is true that Bellamy was the most infamous pirate of his time, capturing over 50 ships in only a year. He was also noted for his generosity and mercy towards those he captured, gaining him the moniker “Robin Hood of the Sea.” Many of the men he captured when he commandeered ships ultimately chose to join his pirate crew, calling themselves “Robin Hood’s Men.”
Bellamy’s greatest conquest came with the Whydah Gally, which he captured from Captain Lawrence Prince. Knowing that Bellamy meant to capture his ship, Lawrence surrendered the Whydah Gally after just one shot from the pirate. True to his generous form, Bellamy traded Lawrence the ship Sultana for Lawrence’s Whydah Gally, outfitting the latter as his new flagship before the crew set sail back home to New England.
If Maria Hallett, Bellamy’s bride to be, was in fact waiting for Samuel Bellamy to return to her, then she would have certainly seen her lover’s fate from the shores of Cape Cod. As Bellamy and his crew approached the Massachusetts coast the weather turned, creating a violent nor’easter cyclone. Storms like Bellamy’s are notorious for producing heavy rains and snow, making them extremely dangerous to ships. The strength of the storm caused the Whydah Gally to strike a sandbar during its approach, beaching it less than a mile from Marconi Beach, near Wellfleet, Massachusetts. After being beaten by relentless 70 mile per hour winds, the main mast of the Whydah Gally snapped, causing the ship to capsize. The cargo of the ship and its 144-man crew and captain were consequently thrust into the sea.
By the next morning, the bodies of many of the men had washed up to shore. In total, only two men survived the sinking, and forty bodies (including Bellamy’s) were never recovered. The ship’s location was subsequently lost, and it quickly fell into local legend, where it was considered little more than a fable for centuries until its rediscovery in 1984. Relying on a 1717 map claiming to show the location of Bellamy’s ship, underwater archaeologist Barry Clifford discovered the Whydah Gally under only 14 feet of water and 5 feet of sand.
Since its rediscovery, more than 200,000 individual artifacts have been retrieved from the ship, including the ship’s bell, which was inscribed with “THE WHYDAH GALLY 1716.” This helped to authenticate the Whydah as the first pirate shipwreck to ever be found and confirmed. Today, the shipwreck is valued at $400 million USD, and its artifacts are largely on display at the Whydah Pirate Museum in West Yarmouth, Massachusetts.
SS Central America: America’s Most Famous Shipwreck
Also known as the “Ship of Gold,” the SS Central America was an American sidewheel steamer that operated between the East Coast and Central America. Primarily a mail ship, the Central America was tasked in September 1857 with carrying 477 passengers, 101 crewmembers, 38,000 pieces of mail, and 30,000 pounds of gold harvested during the California Gold Rush to New York City from Panama.
Leaving the port of Colón on September 3, 1857, the Central America made a quick but perhaps damning stop in Havana, Cuba, before continuing north under the guidance of Captain William Lewis Herndon. The arrival of Herndon’s ship was highly anticipated in New York, as the gold excavated from the Gold Rush was expected to help assuage the impact of the year’s rather weak economy, and allay public fears of an impending economic depression.
However, before it could deliver the promised gold, the Central America was engulfed by a Category 2 hurricane off the coast of the Carolinas. The hurricane carried 105 mile per hour winds, which along with increasingly rough seas tattered the sails of the ship, and caused its boiler to fail. Knowing the ship was taking on too much water to remain afloat, Herndon flew the ship’s flag inverted, a well-known distress signal of the time.
After a long night at sea, the Central America’s distress signal was noticed by the passing ship Marine, who stopped to help the passengers on board. While the Marine had enough room for the women and children aboard the ship, there was not enough space for Herndon, his crew, or most of the male passengers to escape the sinking ship. Refusing to abandon his ship with passengers still aboard, Herndon and his first mate chose to dress in full regalia, before sacrificing themselves with their ship on the evening of September 12, 1857.
A painting depicting the sinking of the SS Central America. Reprinted from Mines of Clear Creek County by Ben M. Dugan courtesy of the Library of Congress (pg. 10, Arcadia Publishing, 2013).
At the time of the boat’s ultimate demise, over 400 people were still on board, making it the most deadly of any American commercial boat disaster. The gold on board (valued today at over $292,000,000 USD) was also lost. The loss of this gold was a major contributor to the following Panic of 1857, as public confidence in the economy further declined.
The Central America’s location was subsequently lost. In 1988, explorer Tommy Gregory Thompson led a group to search for the ship, where it was found approximately 160 miles off the coast of South Carolina. Up to three tons of gold were excavated from the ship under Thompson’s leadership, leading to long legal battles that have continued to present day. Insurers, citing their original insurance of the gold in 1857, claimed the treasure belonged to them, leading to a court case that lasted until 1996, when 92% of the gold was awarded to Thompson. He was later sued by investors and crewmen, who complained they were not paid for their work and investments into the project.
After going into hiding in 2012, Thompson was captured by US Marshals in 2015, and is currently in prison. Since 2014, deep-water shipwreck salvaging company Odyssey Marine Exploration has worked to excavate the remainder of the Central America site, which they claim was only “5 percent” excavated during Thompson’s expedition. Today, the value of recovered gold from the site is estimated between to be $100-150 million USD, and is on display around the country.
While the farm-to-table movement has grown in popularity since restaurants like Chez Panisse and The Herbfarm began promoting the benefits of locally grown foods, critics have been just as quick to point out the movement’s disadvantages. To celebrate the release of our cookbook The Big Sky Bounty Cookbook: Local Ingredients and Rustic Recipes, we’ve put together the history of the movement, and the biggest arguments for and against eating locally grown foods.
Farm-to-Table Plants Its Roots
An offshoot of the hippie movement of the 1960s and 70s, farm-to-table began as a revolt against the processed food empire that had built during the early 20th century. Food preservation techniques such as canning had helped to build an industry based on producing long-lasting foods, which were also often more inexpensive to make.
While the longevity and price of processed food made it a profitable business, the nutritional value and quality of mass-produced products left something to be desired. By the 1960s and 70s, the larger hippie movement (whose members focused on being counter-culture in an effort to free themselves from societal constraints) was pushing against processed products, favoring local and organic foodstuffs above mass-produced staples. This preference for fresher foods soon began influencing the larger food industry. As a result, chef and restauranteur Alice Waters opened Chez Panisse in Berkeley, California in 1971, the first farm-to-table restaurant.
Although farm-to-table can be traced as far back as Waters and the mid-20th century, the explosion of the movement didn’t come until the early 2000s. Farmers’ markets and farm-to-fork restaurants quickly began popping up across the country in the early 21st century, with restaurants like The Herbfarm in Seattle, or The Kitchen in Boulder, Colorado building large followings. Today, farm-to-table restaurants and farmers’ markets can be found in almost every major city nationwide.
The growth of the movement has been largely attributed to the work of food activists, who vigorously promote the benefits of eating locally grown food. The advantages espoused by supporters of local food have not always been well-received however, and the movement has also received a good deal of criticism in the past two decades, making it one of the largest current debates in the food industry.
Supporters of the farm-to-fork movement will often cite four major benefits of eating local, focusing on how locally-sourced food might benefit both a community and the environment:
A Diverse Local Economy: Proponents often claim that local eating helps to diversify a local economy. By choosing food that’s grown locally, consumers help to keep their money within their own community, rather than forwarding it to a national conglomerate. This not only helps local farmers competing with national producers, but also might help the local economy, as that same money can be reinvested in other local businesses later on.
Growing the Community: One of the central elements of the farm-to-table movement is the strengthening of communal ties. Supporters of the movement believe that events like farmers’ markets are a great way for local communities to get together and celebrate their area. These personal connections can be beneficial for both farmers and their customer, as they help to not only build regional pride, but also help build relationships between farmers and the people they serve.
Better Tasting, More Nutritious Food: Farm-to-table advocates also claim that local food will taste better than preservative-filled food that is shipped long distances. Recent studies have found that foodstuffs can be transported up to 1500 miles on average before reaching a customer’s hands. To be sure this food is fresh once it reaches a grocery store, it will often be picked from the vine before it is ripe, and allowed to ripen during transportation.
As a result of this practice, produce will lose some of its nutritional value. By buying directly from farmers, local food advocates argue that consumers will receive a product that was allowed to ripen on the vine during its intended season, which will not only be more nutritious, but also taste better than food grown out of season and then transported.
Helping the Environment: As a result of not shipping food over long distances, local eating activists say that farm-to-table practices can also benefit the environment. By reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transportation, local eating can have worldwide benefits, as food is often shipped worldwide. Local eating would help to offset the environmental impacts of massive global food shipments, as countries would not be trading as many products internationally.
Criticism of the Farm-to-Table Movement
While local eating may have numerous benefits, there are also some major concerns that detractors of the movement cite for a customer to consider:
Less Food Choices and Variety: Critics often point out that eating local means committing to only eating foods that naturally grow in someone’s region, meaning some food staples must be given up depending on season. While it might be enjoyable to have apples year-round in New York State, apple season only lasts a couple of months during the fall, leaving the rest of the year to wait for a new harvest. In areas like the Midwest, common kitchen spices like cinnamon cannot be grown during any season, eliminating the ability to have spices for completely local dishes. As a result, true farm-to-table diets can be difficult in the modern day, where societies have become accustomed to products from other areas.
The Question of Health: While proponents cite the health benefits to eating locally grown foods, detractors question whether local food is inherently healthier. While food grown in small, local farms might be organic or GMO-free depending on government regulations, there is no true guarantee that crops are raised without pesticides, or without some genetic modification. As a result, critics argue the notion that local food must be healthy is a largely popularized myth.
Food Safety Concerns: One of the largest criticisms continually waged at locally grown foods concerns said food’s safety. Smaller farms, according to detractors, are often less regulated by the government than large-scale agricultural operations. As a result, the safety of this food is questionable at best. Supporting these claims, critics site examples such as Mexican food chain Chipotle, who, while attempting to ride the farm-to-table movement wave by sourcing their products from local sources, has struggled with outbreaks of diseases like E. coli, norovirus, and salmonella with their products. Consequently, critics claim that the trust that farm-to-table requires in suppliers could be misplaced.
Global Hunger: While local food may be beneficial for nature overall, local food opponents argue that it may not be viable for all environments. In climates such as the arctic or desert areas, farming can be difficult, and harvests may not reap enough food to feed a community. In addition, in urban areas, farmland is often taken to make space for population growth, leaving less real estate for small farms near these metropolises. With the global population expected to hit 9 billion people by 2050, industrial farming may be a necessity to keep the world fed.
Like any debate, farm-to-table presents both advantages and disadvantages for consumers to contemplate. For those concerned with helping the environment and building a strong local community, eating local presents a good opportunity to accomplish both goals, all while promoting healthy eating.
However, local eating may not always be a feasible option for those in more remote or urban areas, where locally grown foods can be harder to come by. In these cases, traditional industrial farming may afford the opportunity for not only a more varied food choice, but also provide enough products to keep a population from going hungry.
Whether you’re for local eating, against it, or somewhere in between, be sure to get the best local recipes from The Big Sky Bounty Cookbook!
