8 Historic Jewish Synagogues in the US

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The history of Jewish communities in the United States can be traced as far back as colonial communities, when the first Jewish settlers arrived in Virginia in the 17th century. In celebration of this long heritage and Jewish American Heritage Month, we’ve put together a glimpse of some of United States’ most historically significant synagogues and Jewish congregations.

Touro Synagogue: Oldest Synagogue in the United States

The interior of the Touro Synagogue. Reprinted from Jews of Rhode Island by Geraldine S. Foster, Eleanor F. Horovitz, and Judith Weiss Cohen courtesy of John Hopf (pg. 10, Arcadia Publishing, 1998).

The oldest standing synagogue in America, the Touro Synagogue broke ground in 1759 in Newport, Rhode Island. Designed by British architect Peter Harrison, the synagogue was built for Congregation Jeshuat Israel and was formally dedicated in December of 1763. It is the only synagogue to survive from the colonial era, and is still serves as an active Orthodox congregation. The synagogue is also home to a letter from President George Washington, sent to the synagogue warden in 1790. The letter, which speaks on the importance of religious pluralism and freedom, is recited yearly by influential speakers; recent examples include Supreme Court Justices Ruth Bader Ginsberg and Elena Kagan.

Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim: Oldest Synagogue in Continuous Use in the United States

Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim synagogue, built in 1840. Reprinted from Explorations in Charleston’s Jewish History by Soloman Breibart courtesy of the K.K. Beth Elohim Papers, Special Collections, College of Charleston (pg. 146, The History Press, 2005).

Located in Charleston, South Carolina, the Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim synagogue is the second-oldest in the country, and the oldest synagogue in continuous use. Built in 1840, the synagogue is home to Congregation Beth Elohim, one of the oldest Jewish congregations in the United States, founded in 1749. The congregation is often cited as the home of Reform Judaism in the US, after a group of liberal congregants left (and subsequently rejoined) the old congregation due to a difference in theological principles. Many of these principles (such as a more conceptual approach to the Torah, and a less strict approach to rituals) can still be seen in modern-day Reform Judaism.

Mikveh Israel: One of the Oldest Congregations in Philadelphia

Mikveh Israel Congregation in Philadelphia. Reprinted from Historic Synagogues of Philadelphia & the Delaware Valley by Julian Preisler courtesy of the author (pg. 74, The History Press, 2009).

Founded in the 1740s in Philadelphia, Congregation Mikveh Israel is one of the oldest congregations in Philadelphia, and was started by Spanish and Portuguese immigrants. The congregation, which still practices in the Spanish and Portuguese rite with a weekly Shabbat service, is also home to the second-oldest surviving Jewish cemetery in the United States. This cemetery was started by Nathan Levy, who was said to have transported the Liberty Bell on his ship the Myrtilla. Intended as a burial ground for the entire Jewish community of Philadelphia, the cemetery came under the care of the congregation in 1765. Today, the cemetery is registered on the National Register of Historic Places.

Sherith Israel: Established During the California Gold Rush 

Sherith Israel Temple. Reprinted from Jewish San Francisco by Edward Zerin courtesy of the author (pg. 70, Arcadia Publishing, 2006).
Sherith Israel Temple. Reprinted from Jewish San Francisco by Edward Zerin courtesy of the author (pg. 70, Arcadia Publishing, 2006).

One of the oldest synagogues in the country, Sherith Israel was established during the California Gold Rush in San Francisco, CA. A member of Reform Judaism, the congregation is recognized for its innovative approaches to worship, including welcoming interfaith couples and a congregation-wide focus on social justice.

The synagogue is also well-known for its sanctuary building, which was constructed in 1905 in response to nearly outgrowing the original Gothic Revival-style synagogue. The sanctuary features many Judaic frescoes, which depict classic Judaic symbols like the Ten Commandments, the Torah, and a Chanukah menorah. Since surviving the 1906 San Francisco earthquake with only moderate damage (and no damage during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake), the synagogue has become a popular tourist destination for architecture enthusiasts, and has been on the National Register of Historic Places since 2012.

Mickve Israel: Only US Congregation to Practice in Gothic-Style Synagogue

The exterior of Mickve Israel Synagogue. Reprinted from The Jewish Community of Savannah by Valerie Frey and Kaye Kole (pg.29, Arcadia Publishing, 2002).
The exterior of Mickve Israel Synagogue. Reprinted from The Jewish Community of Savannah by Valerie Frey and Kaye Kole (pg.29, Arcadia Publishing, 2002).

Organized in 1735 by Spanish-Portuguese Jews, Congreagation Mickve Israel is among the oldest congregations in the nation, and the only to practice in a Gothic-style synagogue. Located in Savannah, Georgia, the synagogue was consecrated in 1878, and is the latter of two worship sites for the congregation. Like the Touro Synagogue, Congregation Mickve Israel is also home to a letter from President George Washington, which was sent shortly after his election to the Presidency. This letter was the first sent by the President to a Jewish community, and was sent after the congregation congratulated him on his election. The letter asks that God continue to bless all those who practiced within an Abrahamic religion.

Lloyd Street Synagogue: First Synagogue in Maryland

An early rendering of the Lloyd Street Synagogue. Reprinted from The Jewish Community of Baltimore by Lauren S. Silberman courtesy of the JMM, 1997.071.1 (pg. 18, Arcadia Publishing, 2008).
An early rendering of the Lloyd Street Synagogue. Reprinted from The Jewish Community of Baltimore by Lauren S. Silberman courtesy of the JMM, 1997.071.1 (pg. 18, Arcadia Publishing, 2008).

The first synagogue erected in Maryland and the third oldest synagogue in the country, the Lloyd Street Synagogue has had several uses since its construction. Built in 1830, the synagogue was first home to the Baltimore Hebrew Congregation, and was designed by architect Robert Cary Long, Jr.. Long, who was also responsible for the construction of St. Peter the Apostle Church in Baltimore, designed the buildings as near-twins of one another. The synagogue building was subsequently sold by the congregation in 1889 to a Catholic parish, which occupied the building until 1905, when it was sold back to an Orthodox Jewish congregation. Saved from demolition in by the newly created Jewish Historical Society of Maryland, the synagogue now operates as the Jewish Museum of Maryland, and serves as a museum on Jewish history.

Sixth and I Historic Synagogue: Non-Traditional Worship Site in Washington, D.C.

The Sixth and I Streets Historic Synagogue. Reprinted from The Jewish Community of Washington D.C. by Dr. Martin Garfinkle courtesy of Limor Garfinkle (pg. 18, Arcadia Publishing, 2005).
The Sixth and I Streets Historic Synagogue. Reprinted from The Jewish Community of Washington D.C. by Dr. Martin Garfinkle courtesy of Limor Garfinkle (pg. 18, Arcadia Publishing, 2005).

Constructed by the Adas Israel Congregation in 1908, the Sixth and I Historic Synagogue is a non-traditional worship site located in Washington D.C. The synagogue is both non-denominational and non-membership, and offers services to all Jewish denominations, with six unique sets of prayer books to properly represent all of these denominations. The synagogue’s non-traditional approach to worship came after it was saved from being transitioned into a nightclub in the early 21st century by three Jewish developers. After the building was restored and rededicated in 2004, it became home to not only its unique services, but also larger public outreach events. These events have included talks with major figures like President George W. Bush and Elie Wiesel, concerts, and even comedians.

Rodeph Shalom: Oldest Ashkenazic Synagogue in the Western Hemisphere

Rodeph Shalom Congregation. Reprinted from Historic Synagogues of Philadelphia & the Delaware Valley by Julian Preisler courtesy of Arthur Rosenthal, 2007 (pg. 83, The History Press, 2009).
Rodeph Shalom Congregation. Reprinted from Historic Synagogues of Philadelphia & the Delaware Valley by Julian Preisler courtesy of Arthur Rosenthal, 2007 (pg. 83, The History Press, 2009).

The oldest Ashkenazic synagogue in the Western Hemisphere, Congregation Rodeph Shalom was founded in 1795 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania by immigrants from Germany, Holland, and Poland. The first synagogue in Pennsylvania to receive a corporate charter, the congregation is known not only as a leader in the Reform Judaism movement, but also as one of the only Byzantine-Moorish style synagogues in the country. Their current synagogue, which was built on the site of the first worship site, was built in response to outgrowing the original building. The synagogue has maintained a historically significant presence, and hosted President Barack Obama during the 2008 Passover.

Visit arcadiapublishing.com to learn more about religious buildings in the US.

Presidential Homes in Virginia

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For today’s post, we thought it would be fun to take our readers on a quick tour of presidential homes in Virginia — the state that served as the birthplace for eight U.S. presidents. Old Dominion has produced more presidents than any other state, including George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, William Henry Harrison, John Tyler, Zachary Taylor and Woodrow Wilson. Indeed, few states bring as much historical bounty, especially for the lover of grand Federal and Georgian estates of the presidential variety.

Jefferson’s Virginia: Monticello and Beyond

As Macaluso points out in her new book, the Piedmont region of central Virginia is affectionately known as “Jefferson Country” because of its inextricable link to the former president. Not only did Jefferson lay his roots here by building a handful of grand mansions, but he also lent his design eye to several significant structures still standing today, including the Virginia State Capitol Building and The Rotunda at the University of Virginia, among others.

A rear façade of Monticello. Reprinted from A Guide to Thomas Jefferson’s Virginia

But it’s Monticello that truly showcases Jefferson’s design style, which is undoubtedly Jeffersonian — a distinct expression of Neo-Classicism marked by sand-painted columns, octagonal domes and grand porticos. Jefferson designed and built Monticello when he was just 26, during the time when he served as a county delegate and practiced law in Albemarle County. The house was and continues to be a symbol of early America, having been printed on currency — it’s still on the nickel today — and drawing some 430,000 visitors every year.

One of the most fascinating aspects of Monticello is what was known as Mulberry Row, what the Jefferson Foundation calls “the dynamic, industrial hub of Jefferson’s 5,000-acre agricultural enterprise.” As Macaluso points out, Mulberry Row was populated by some 130 enslaved men, women and children at any given time at Monticello. Today, you can visit re-created enslaved cabins on Mulberry Row at Monticello.

The estate is easily Jefferson’s most well-known structure, and arguably the most famous presidential home still standing, but there are some lesser-known Jeffersonian structures in Virginia that are well worth a visit for the lover of historic and presidential homes. One such example is Poplar Forest, a plantation house in Virginia’s Bedford County, which was built by Jefferson between the years of 1806 and 1826 as a rural retreat and plantation.

George Washington’s Mount Vernon

Mount Vernon. Reprinted from Virginia’s Presidents.

Virginia is also home to Mount Vernon, George Washington’s 250-year-old mansion that sits on the banks of the Potomac River 8 miles south of Alexandria. Washington acquired the one and a half story home in 1974 and spend 45 years developing it to its final state: a 21-room home with approximately 11,000 square feet of living space. In Patrick L. O’Neill’s book “Virginia’s Presidential Homes,” the author points out that, following Washington’s death, his family fought to have him interred on the land. He was laid to rest at Mount Vernon in 1799, beneath the long portico. You can visit his grave in The Tombs of Mount Vernon today.

James Madison’s Montpelier

The Orange, Virginia home of fourth president James Madison is cited as one of the finest examples of Federalist architecture and is one of the largest presidential homes in the United States. Construction on the estate began in 1763 and culminated just before the war of 1812. In those five decades, the Madisons added a Tuscan portico, a large drawing room and two single-story wings at either end of the house. The estate changed hands many times after Madison’s death and eventually landed in the hands of the Du Pont family, who more than doubled its size.

Other Presidential Homes to Visit

While the above three estates are indeed the most-visited presidential homes in Virginia, there are many more worthy estates of former commanders in chief that you can still visit today. John Tyler’s Sherwood Forest, built in 1730, still stands in Charles City County, while William Henry Harrison’s Berkeley Plantation is open for public tours just 16 miles away. Theodore Roosevelt’s rural cabin, Pine Knot, is still maintained and open to the public, and The Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library and Museum in Staunton houses the Greek revival home where Wilson was born.

Indeed, if presidential dwellings are your thing, then you’ll definitely want to make some time to visit Virginia this year. We recommend following the Presidential Trail of Virginia, which takes you from Northern Virginia’s Mount Vernon and finishes in Leesburg at James Monroe’s Oak Hill, stopping at various presidential sites along the way.

How Uranium Fever Shaped the 1950s Southwest

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In the years that followed World War II, there was a surprising new version of the Gold Rush – this time, instead of gold, many in the US was gripped by “uranium fever.” An estimated ten thousand people headed to the Southwest attempting to make their fortunes in prospecting radioactive material. While the heyday of uranium mining was short, spanning just twelve years, its effects on the people of the Southwest can still be seen in the modern day.

The Beginnings of Uranium Fever

A radioactive chemical element, uranium was desirable for many reasons in the US following World War II. The end of the war had seen the advent of chemical weaponry, with the US dropping two nuclear bombs on the Japanese mainland. The first of these, codenamed “Little Boy,” was a uranium-based device, which was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. As a result of its usage in the war, uranium became highly sought after to help in the production of chemical weapons during the height of the Cold War. Government agencies like the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) used uranium in their research, developing more advanced chemical weapons as tensions between the US and Russia increased.

Uranium was also pursued for its important role in powering nuclear power plants. Natural uranium, which contains both uranium-238 and uranium-235, is the only organically occurring element which can sustain a chain reaction (otherwise known as a fissionable fuel). The heat produced through these chain reactions is used to create steam that turns turbines and generates electrical power in a nuclear plant. In addition, uranium could be used to power nuclear submarines. As a result, the desire for uranium in the post-WWII landscape was high, leading to several unintended consequences as prospectors flocked to chance their luck in mining the valuable resource.

The Rags-to-Riches Uranium Miners

While many of the prospectors who came to states like Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico in search of uranium wealth were disappointed, the stories of the lucky few motivated many miners to keep trying. The greatest of these fabled men was Charlie Steen. The so-called “King of Uranium,” Steen had been an oil geologist before leaving the oil business to search for uranium in 1949. His geology background gave him more insight where uranium might be found, and Steen theorized that uranium may be found deeper within the Earth than most prospectors had ventured to dig. Packing up his wife and four sons, the Steens roamed virtually penniless through southeastern Utah in search of uranium, eventually taking up a tarpaper shack near Cisco, Utah.

Initially discouraged by his lack of success, Steen nearly gave up on his uranium venture, but was encouraged to persevere. This persistence eventually paid off when Steen found a large deposit of uraninite (otherwise known as pitchblende) in the Colorado Plateau. Although pitchblende was well known for being rich in uranium, it was not thought to exist in the Plateau prior to Steen’s discovery. Steen’s find skyrocketed his meager wealth, and he was at one point thought to have made over $130 million USD. Steen went on to manage one of the most successful uranium mines of the 1950s, which he nicknamed “mi vida” – Spanish for “my life.”

Charles Steen and his family. Reprinted from Historic Adventures on the Colorado Plateau by Robert Silbernagel courtesy of the Museum of Moab (pg. 123, The History Press, 2018).
Charles Steen and his family. Reprinted from Historic Adventures on the Colorado Plateau by Robert Silbernagel courtesy of the Museum of Moab (pg. 123, The History Press, 2018).

Steen was not the only success story out of the quest for uranium; take, for example, Vernon Pick. Pick, who had been travelling to California from Minnesota, took a detour to Grand Junction, Colorado to pick up mining supplies after hearing of the uranium boom. He discovered a mine while prospecting in Utah, which he subsequently sold for $9 million USD. Although Pick was never as successful as Steen, he was another success story which prospective miners could look to for hope in their own ventures. As for Steen, he continued to monopolize the uranium industry until its collapse in 1960, at which point he lost his fortune due to the declining demand for uranium and heavy federal taxes.

From Boom Town to Ghost Town, and Other Challenges

The uranium bonanza had effects beyond individual success, however. Towns that had previously been relatively unknown saw sudden population surges due to an influx of prospectors. Areas like Moab, Utah, near where Steen had prospected saw a population increase of over 5,000 individuals. As a result, tiny towns began bursting at the seams, without a good means to support such a number of people. To accommodate those who could not live in the towns, mining camps began to spring up outside of towns, as more people flooded into the Southwest. After uranium mining began to decline, however, many of these towns returned to their original smaller populations, or were abandoned altogether. Cisco, Utah, for example, is now an American ghost town, despite being where Steen and his family lived when they struck uranium gold.

The fervor for uranium also did not recognize the dangers of such radioactive materials, the effects of which were not common knowledge at the time. As a result, many workers were exposed to high levels of radiation, which later resulted in lung cancer from years spent breathing in radon gas. Other forms of cancer were also common. Today, the government has paid reparations to many afflicted by their time spent mining for uranium, and nearly half the of the 50 present and former uranium milling sites have been designated as “superfund” sites. These sites are now the property of the US Environmental Protection Agency, who is responsible for properly cleaning and disposing of the hazardous material.

The Decline of Uranium Mining

By the end of the 1950s, the uranium industry was beginning to wane, as the AEC found that they had more than enough uranium for their experimental purposes. Without this governmental demand for the radioactive material, uranium prices began to drop, and many mines were forced to close their doors. Formerly rich prospectors like Steen found themselves without an industry to profit from, leading further to the abandonment of mining sites and towns.

Despite the lack of government support, uranium mining remained for the purpose of fueling nuclear electrical plants for several decades, but has mostly ceased to exist since the 1980s. As the increased dangers of uranium were discovered throughout the 60s and 70s, many states passed bans on the mining of uranium, which are still enforced today. While a handful of states still take part in mining operations, the golden age of uranium has long since passed, leaving only its legacy of ghost towns and legendary success stories behind.

If you’d like to learn more about the mining endeavors on the Colorado Plateau, check out our new book Historic Adventures on the Colorado Plateau.

Guest Post: Grass Valley and the Philosopher

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One of the greatest things about American communities is that they create and foster a surprising amount of diversity. Take, for instance, the rough and tumble pioneer community captured in Claudine Chalmers’ Grass Valley. A combination of rare images of the Grass Valley, California community and Chalmers’ own commentary and discussion, Grass Valley shows how much there is to be learned from studying local communities.

Chalmers, a PhD in History, was born in France and later fell in love with California’s gold country after immigrating to northern California. Her book starts by describing the early Native American inhabitants of Grass Valley before it became the site of the second California Gold Rush. The indigenous population, known as the Nisenan, were driven off by the influx of miners and farmers. They were later displaced as a result of this influx to small reservations.

Two Nisenan children. Reprinted from Grass Valley by Claudine Chalmers courtesy of Jim Johnson (pg. 32, Arcadia Publishing, 2006).

In Grass Valley’s early years during the second California Gold Rush, settlers came individually and dug “coyote holes” to try to extract gold from quartz rock. This was a risky and hazardous, if lucrative occupation. With the arrival of these pioneers, however, began the rudiments of a town.

This 1850s image shows Grass Valley’s first settlement. Reprinted from Grass Valley by Claudine Chalmers courtesy of Michel Janicot (pg. 16, Arcadia Publishing, 2006).

These early techniques of mining gold soon gave way to larger, more sophisticated methods that required infusions of capital from large corporations. However, these early immigrants helped to instill the developing community with diversity. The Grass Valley community soon prospered through its gold and other mineral wealth, becoming home to large influxes of immigrants. And in 1855 for example, two immigrants seeking a better life had a child in rugged Grass Valley, California, whom they named Josiah Royce. While one might not expect a Wild West mining community to produce one of America’s great philosophers, that is exactly what Grass Valley did.

Josiah Royce. Reprinted from Grass Valley by Claudine Chalmers courtesy of Comstock Bonanza Press. (pg. 42, Arcadia Publishing, 2006).

Royce, who lived from 1855 to 1916, eventually went on to teach at Harvard University for over thirty years after spending his formative years in Grass Valley. He also wrote several important books (including a history of early California), and was a friend and colleague to philosopher William James. One of Royce’s main philosophical interests was in the “Idea of the Community,” and he remarked near the end of his life that his upbringing had helped to spark and fuel this interest, saying

“The wide prospects when one looked across the Sacramento valley were impressive, and had long interested the people of whose love for my country I had heard much. What was there then in this place that ought to be called new, or for that matter, crude? I wondered, and gradually came to feel that part of my life’s business was to find out what all this wonder meant… I strongly feel [now] that my deepest motives and problems have centered around the Idea of the Community, although this idea has only come gradually to my clear consciousness. This was what I was intensely feeling, in the days when my sisters and I looked across the Sacramento Valley and wondered about the great world beyond our mountains.”

The community that Royce saw in Grass Valley flourished during his childhood. A local government was soon established; supporting business (including the ubiquitous taverns) grew, and schools, churches, parks, and newspapers helped to create a sense of community life.

One of the many aspects of community life, Mount St. Mary’s was an orphanage established to care for the children of the many victims of mining accidents. This image dates to the early 1870s. Reprinted from Grass Valley by Claudine Chalmers courtesy of Grass Valley Museum (pg. 45, Arcadia Publishing, 2006).

This is not to say that Grass Valley didn’t face some challenges. In its early years, the community went through many transformations, including surviving two large fires. After rebuilding following these fires, a narrow gauge railroad was soon built, primarily to bring the gold mined in the town to market. Streets were paved, and a street car system provided transportation before the advent of the automobile at the turn of the 20th century. Still, the community managed to make room for all, with many ethnic groups calling Grass Valley home.

Grass Valley was still a mining town in 1900. It was already building on its gold rush past in this sign at the entrance to Main Street. Note the trolley tracks and electrical wires. Reprinted from Grass Valley by Claudine Chalmers courtesy of Jim Johnson (pg. 74, Arcadia Publishing, 2006).

By 1900, Grass Valley still relied on the gold market to drive the city’s economy. However, community projects remained at the center of the town’s culture, and in 1916 the Grass Valley public library was built with funds procured from a Carnegie grant. The library, located at 207 Mill Street, was built on the same site where Josiah Royce had been born nearly 61 years before. Royce, who at that point lived in Cambridge due to his teaching obligations at Harvard, subsequently died that same year.

The gold market would continue to fuel Grass Valley’s economy until World War II, when the war forced the closure of the gold mines, and thereby ended the narrow gauge railroad. The city then entered a decline, where it seemed the community that Royce had grown up within might finally be played out. Beginning in the 1960s however, the Grass Valley Downtown Association and the City of Grass Valley began working together to help reinvent the city as a retail center. The city also focuses on its historic past as a mining town of the Gold Rush and its more notable residents. This focus led the city to rename the library (now on the National Register of Historic Places) for Josiah Royce in 2005.

While the early days of Grass Valley’s rough and tumble gold mining are long past, the community built around that historic heritage has not waned even in the face of difficulties like fire, war, or the end of the gold trade. Today, Grass Valley properly keeps alive its history and sense of self as a community while continuing to move forward, revealing that there is much we can learn from Royce and his home, and about the true meaning of a community.

5 State Hospitals and their Stories

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At their core, state hospitals across the United States shared the same goals and challenges: to treat America’s mentally ill. They rose in popularity during the mid-to-late 1800s, and remained open through most of the 20th century. Most practiced the leading treatments of the day, including electric shock therapy, strait jackets, and lobotomies – methods later deemed inhumane. Likewise, the majority of hospitals came to an end when their funding dwindled and smaller institutions became preferable for patients. These are five state hospitals and their stories. 

Byberry State Hospital

Byberry State Hospital. Reprinted from Byberry State Hospital by Hannah Karena Jones, courtesy of the Library Company of Philadelphia (pg. 15, Arcadia Publishing, 2013).

Byberry State Hospital, officially known as the Philadelphia State Hospital, bears the scars from years of inhumane conditions of its patients. The hospital opened in the early 1900s with just a handful of patients, but by 1953 had over 50 buildings, making it one of the nation’s most overcrowded institutions. It was home to both the mentally challenged and criminally insane, and both were succumbed to regular abuse and neglect. 

The hospital rose to national attention through a series of investigations by local journalists and state health departments. Published photos revealed patients sleeping in the halls due to overcrowding, human waste on hall floors, and nude patients sitting unattended. Byberry was closed in the late 1980s after being declared a “clinical and management nightmare.” Today, most of the buildings have been destroyed, and built over with offices and urban housing. 

Hudson River State Hospital

The Hudson River State Hospital opened in Poughkeepsie, New York, in 1871, and was still operating as recently as 2003. The hospital was founded under “Moral Treatment” – a movement that was spear-headed by mental health activist Dorothea Dix. As the name suggests, it focused on providing patients with fair and humane treatments. Hudson River was one of the largest institutions in the country, with over 160 acres of buildings to house and treat patients. 

Hudson River was at the helm of the time’s newest treatment methods. Hospital employees were taught to monitor patients closely, and promote exercise and healthy eating. As the 21st century neared, new methods of treatment like medication and talk therapy grew into popularity. Unfortunately, Hudson River was forced to shut down due to insufficient funds to maintain its buildings.

Danvers State Hospital

Danvers State Hospital. Reprinted from Danvers State Hospital by Katherine Anderson and Robert Duffy, courtesy of the Danvers Archival Center (pg. 18, Arcadia Publishing, 2018).

Originally known as the State Lunatic Asylum at Danvers, the hospital welcomed its first patients in 1878. Danvers was considered a success in its earliest years: employing 125 people and treating more than 9,500 patients since opening. However, the hospital was quickly overcrowded, leading to the poor treatment of patients. Patients wandered the halls naked, lived in their own filth due to lacking basic hygiene, and many experienced a worsening of their symptoms. 

Danvers is thought to be the birthplace of the prefrontal lobotomy. When shock treatments and strait jackets offered no relief to patients, doctors opted for the lobotomy surgery, which they believed to be a cure for anyone’s insanity. Poor funding made conditions even worse, and the state closed the hospital by 1992. Today, Danvers reputation as a haunted hospital makes it a favorite location for thrill-seekers looking for a supernatural scare.

Camarillo State Hospital

The Camarillo State Hospital located in Camarillo, California, operated from 1936 to 1997. During the mid-1900s, it was at the center of cutting-edge treatments for mentally ill patients, including revolutionary drug and therapy treatments for schizophrenia patients. Unlike several other hospitals functioning at the time, Camarillo State Hospital helped patients who would have formerly been resigned to an institution, including those who had undergone minor lobotomies, return to a somewhat normal life. They were one of the leaders in researching drug therapies, and housed one of the first units to help autistic patients. 

Camarillo State Hospital met the same fate as many others like it during the late 1900s. Due to increased per patient costs and a lack of funding, the governor of California closed the hospital. Members of the public tried to keep the hospital open, saying they could house the criminally insane there to help increase patient numbers, but the hospital remained on its path to closure. The buildings were converted to California State University, where the first classes were held in 2002. 

Westborough State Hospital

Westborough State Hospital. Reprinted from Westborough State Hospital by Katherine Anderson, courtesy of Phil Kittredge (pg. 14, Arcadia Publishing, 2019).

Westborough State Hospital started as a reform school for boys called the Lyman School, and could house 400 to 500 troublesome boys. However, it was found unfit for its purpose and converted to an insane asylum during the 1880s. Patients here received fairly mild treatments compared to other hospitals of the day. Bed rest and hydrotherapy were common, along with occupational therapy and relaxation drugs. By the end of World War II, the hospital sponsored more than 1,700 patients. 

Problems arose when the hospital population increased dramatically in the years following the war. This led to an overcrowding that hospital staff struggled to keep up with. As technology and knowledge around the treatment of mentally ill patients improved, Westborough’s population dwindled until it finally closed in 2010. 

These five hospitals were among the most prominent institutions during the 20th century. Their stories and those of their patients are plentiful, and their role in the history of health is not to be forgotten. 

5 Major Battles of the War of 1812

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It’s undeniable that the War of 1812 marked a shift in American history. The war is notable not only because it changed America’s place in the global marketplace, but because a young America fought the country with the greatest naval power in the world. America’s will to expand its territory was challenged in a war that was carried out through a series of potentially devastating battles. Here, we’ve collected five of the most pivotal battles from the War of 1812. 

Battle of Lundy’s Lane

The victor in the Battle of Lundy’s Lane remains up for debate. The United States had been working to capture British-controlled Canada, and American Major General Jacob Brown successfully attacked at the Battle of Chippewa in July 1814, but withdrew his troops to secure his supply lines before progressing further. British Major General Phineas Riall sent troops along Lundy’s Lane to keep in contact with moving America forces. A British Lieutenant Governor, Gordon Drummond arrived to take control, and when Brown began to move north, Drummond countered Riall’s order to withdrawal with one to engage. 

The two sides fought until late into the night, but by midnight both sides were so badly devastated that they called a ceasefire. With leaders bearing critical wounds and ammunition running low, Brown finally ordered his men to retreat. British forces were successful in preventing further advances by American troops, but high casualties on both sides made the battle devastating for both British and Americans. 

Battle of Crysler’s Farm

A map of the Northern Theatre of the War of 1812. Reprinted from Pittsylvania County and the War of 1812 by Larry G. Aaron, courtesy of the Center for Military History, U.S. Army (pg. 56, The History Press, 2014).

The Battle of Crysler’s Farm was a failed attempt by the Americans to capture Montreal. It marked the end of the St. Lawrence Campaign, which was a series of efforts by the United States to take control of St. Lawrence river area. In November 1813, American troops were still moving north, but Brigadier General Joseph Morrison had a plan, and set up his forces in the center of a field belonging to the loyalist John Crysler. American troops saw this as an opportunity and attacked, which was exactly what Morrison had expected. 

On the morning of November 11, the two sides engaged at Crysler’s Farm. Americans were weakened by being forced to traverse two ravines to reach the battlefield while the British had the upper hand by having selected the battleground and therefore could better strategically place their soldiers. The British received backup from Captain William Mulcaster, which forced American soldiers into a state of disarray. With their ammunition was running low and soldiers were falling in vast numbers, the Americans retreated the battle and were forced back to New York for the winter, relinquishing any hold they had on the area. 

Battle of Queenston Heights

The Battle of Queenston Heights was the first major battle fought during the War of 1812. It was an early attempt by Americans to gain hold of British terrain just over the Canada border. They began crossing the Niagara River on October 13, but encountered British artillery fire from the opposite side of the river. American forces managed to cross the river, but were trapped at the base of the river bank under heavy fire. 

Isaac Brock, a well-respected British Major General, led the attack on American forces that forced Americans further into the river. However, the general was killed by a musket ball, a devastating loss for the British. When the battle ended, U.S. forces were trapped in the woods against the river bank and with nowhere else to turn, surrendered. It was an embarrassing defeat for the Americans, but it was arguably the British who suffered worse with the loss of Brock.  

Battle of Baltimore

The bombardment of Fort McHenry. Reprinted from Pittsylvania County and the War of 1812 by Larry G. Aaron (pg. 104, The History Press, 2014).

For three days in early September 1814, British and U.S. forces collided in the fiercely anti-British city of Baltimore. It was because of this sentiment that city leaders expected an attack from the British. Along the outskirts of the city, Baltimore residents built a massive trench to defend the harbor, along with improvements at Fort McHenry. As expected, 3,000 British soldiers landed at North Point and progressed toward Hampstead Hill, where 12,000 Americans were waiting. 

The next morning, the British made a move to capture Fort McHenry. They hoped an attack on the fort would cause Americans to panic and thus retreat, but what they didn’t know was that U.S. soldiers were waiting. Upon arrival, British forces were met with heavy gunfire and realized they were vastly outnumbered. Very soon the British began their retreat. From Fort McHenry, they sailed down to North Point where they met their fellow soldiers who had also retreated. The Battle of Baltimore was over, and the city was safe. 

Battle of Stoney Creek

In the summer of 1813, the Battle of Stoney Creek was a turning point in the War of 1812. U.S. Major-General Henry Dearborn had recently captured Fort George during his campaign to gain hold of region along the New York-Canada border. He was prepared to launch a steady advance toward Upper Canada. Dearborn met his troops with another under the command of Brigadier Chandler and began their march toward Stoney Creek. A young local named Billy Green saw the American troops headed toward the creek, and raced to British forces at Burlington to inform them. 

The British attacked under the cover of night. They bayoneted the sentries before they could alert that the enemy was approaching. The battle that ensued was chaotic and bloody. It had been a risky venture by British forces, but proved a successful one. 23 were killed on the British side, while 55 American soldiers were killed. Americans retreated back to Fort George with the range of movement in the Upper Canada region now severely limited. 

The battles throughout the War of 1812 tested the strength and resilience of both American and British soldiers. With thousands of lives lost and countless others impacted, the war was destructive on more than one front. Today, visitors can walk many of the battlefields that have been preserved. 

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