Celebrating the History of the Greensboro Sit-ins through Pictures

In the 1950s and 1960s, Civil Rights became a focal point for Greensboro, North Carolina — especially during the now iconic Greensboro sit-ins.

The Greensboro Four. On February 1, 1960, four A&T College students walked to the downtown Woolworth’s to challenge the store policy of “whites-only lunch counters.” They sat down at the counters and were refused service. Their actions sparked a nationwide Civil Rights Movement. Picture above from left to right are Franklin McCain, Ezell Blair Jr., David Richmond, and Joseph McNeil. (Courtesy of Jack Moebes, News-Record.)

While this was an important moment in many places around the country, the national Sit-In Movement was birthed at the Greensboro Woolworth, a five-and-dime store that also served lunch.

The activists who would become known as the Greensboro Four were students at the local A&T College. One day in 1960, they walked up to the Woolworth lunch counter, which was segregated, and sat down. When they ordered coffee, the staff asked the Greensboro Four to leave. They refused and remained until the store closed. The next day, they came back with even more supporters. By the end of their stand off, the sit-in approach had started to spread across the South, raising awareness in some places and even desegregating public spaces in others.

Greensboro has continued to commemorate and celebrate the sit-ins and the Greensboro Four. Here are some historic photos of the city’s various events that have marked this important moment.

An image of Jibreel Khazan, a member of the Greensboro Four, at the grave site of David Richmond.
Jibreel Khazan (Ezell Blair Jr.), a member of the Greensboro Four, kneels at the grave site of David Richmond. The two were the Greensboro natives of the four A&T students who initiated the sit-in movement on February 1, 1960. Image sourced from Greensboro, North Carolina.
An image of  the head table at the 1980s celebration of the Greensboro Four.
During a 1980s celebration of the anniversary of the Greensboro Four and the sit-in movement, the head table leads the audience in the singing of “We Shall Overcome.” Image sourced from Greensboro, North Carolina.
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An image of David Richmond with Ima Edwards, the manage of thevWoolworth lunch counter.
David Richmond of the Greensboro Four hugs Ima Edwards, manager of the Woolworth lunch counter on February 1, 1960, when the students began their sit-in. The photograph was taken in 1990 at the 30th anniversary of the sit-ins. Image sourced from Greensboro, North Carolina.
An image of Warnersville, where the history Greensboro Sit-Ins took place.
Purely for business reasons, the Woolworth Corporation decided to close several of its local stores in the 1990s. Among them was the store in Greensboro where the historic sit-ins took place. A small group of Greensboro civic and business leaders, led by Melvin “Skip” Alston and Earl Jones, worked to preserve the site so that the lunch counter story could be told to future generations. Image sourced from Greensboro, North Carolina.
An image of McArthur Davies, the executive director of the International Civil Rights Center and Museum.
Today, the historic F.W. Woolworth Building is home to the International Civil Rights Center and Museum. The Museum, led by people like McArthur Davis, who served as executive director for many years, strives to keep the spirit of the sit-in movement alive. Also, it strives to keep fresh the whole issue about the struggles and successes in this country and others that were inspired by the Greensboro Four. Image sourced from Greensboro, North Carolina.
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Vice in Prohibition Era Philadelphia

Gangsters, bootleggers, crooked cops, and brazen politicians are iconic characters in the Prohibition Era of American history, and no more so than in Philadelphia. But what set the Philadelphia mob family apart from more famous groups in New York, Chicago, and New Orleans was a desire to keep a low profile. And within the lawless realms, Philadelphia became known as an “open town”—one that allowed and even encouraged its citizens to ignore the Prohibition laws of the 1920s. That free-wheeling spirit spawned many colorful players in the City of Brotherly Love.

Lawlessness was the price Philadelphia had to pay for what it wanted to drink.

Collier’s Magazine, 1928.
An image of General Smedley Butler. Image sourced from Philadelphia Organized Crime of the 1920s and 1930s, courtesy of the Library of Congress.

The Fighting Quaker

From 1924 to 1925, Marine General Smedley Butler was Philadelphia’s director of public safety. As top cop, he oversaw both the police and fire departments, and made shrewd moves which produced results. Just in his first year on the job, The Fighting Quaker closed 2,566 speakeasies, and his police force made 39,000 arrests. Butler quickly established an elite force of 250 policemen, nicknamed “Unit No. 1” to handle all vice raids. And Butler even went after the Bellevue-Stratford Hotel and the Ritz-Carlton Hotel, which openly housed gangsters and served thirsty Philadelphians. His culture of strict enforcement also made him an enemy of Philly’s political machinery, which worked hand-in-glove with crooked cops and bootleggers.

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I have been fighting in a battle where the head of the show was disloyal and everything was crooked…Sherman was right about war, but he was never head of police in Philadelphia.

– Smedley Butler
Philadelphia district attorney John Monaghan labeled Max “Boo Boo” Hoff (pictured) as the “King of the Bootleggers.” Image sourced from Philadelphia Organized Crime of the 1920s and 1930s, courtesy of the John Binder Collection.

King of the Bootleggers

Philadelphia district attorney John Monaghan labeled Max “Boo Boo” Hoff as the “King of the Bootleggers.” As a boxing promoter, club owner, and owner of alcohol distilleries, Hoff was a central figure on the bootlegging scene. He knew how to play the game, and famously had a passel of cops on his Christmas list. His speakeasies the 21 Club and the Picadilly Club were never shuttered for very long — public opinion always thwarted the District Attorney, and Hoff was never indicted on Prohibition charges.

Frederick “the Angel” Tenuto accrued a slew of aliases and a reputation as a hit man during his brief career as a mobster. Image sourced from Philadelphia Organized Crime of the 1920s and 1930s, courtesy of the Eastern State Penitentiary Historic Site

The Angel

Frederick “the Angel” Tenuto was a slippery hit man. After escaping from Philadelphia’s Holmesburg Prison in 1947, Sutton was nabbed in Brooklyn…after fire years on the lam! His snitch to the cops, Arnold Schuster? Well, you know what happens to rats… Tenuto spent 14 years on the FBI’s Ten Most Wanted list, but was never seen again.

Herman Petrillo, a father of five, was one of the architects, and casualties, of the Philadelphia arsenic ring. Image sourced from Philadelphia Organized Crime of the 1920s and 1930s, courtesy of the John Binder Collection.

The Poison-for-Profit Syndicate

Arson, counterfeiting, and bootlegging just wasn’t enough for Herman Petrillo, The bored gangster hatched a plan to cash in on the unhappiness of disgruntled wives. Petrillo convinced plenty of unhappy women to 86 their husbands, sometimes with arsenic, and then see them collect from the nearly departeds’ life insurance policies. Not all of the wives were in on the offings; but Christine Cerrone, a 68-year-old housewife, conspired to drown her boarding house resident, and, after they found that she had been a beneficiary for a portion of her victim’s life insurance, pled guilty to second-degree murder. Herman Petrillo wasn’t so lucky — he got the electric chair.

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The Vincennes murder that shook the city in 1911

Vincennes may be Indiana’s oldest city, but even its residents have forgotten a sensational slice of local history — the Vincennes murder that split a family and shook the city more than a century ago.

It wasn’t the first time a grisly crime had hit the Indiana countryside. But the murder — and the trial of victims’ two sons — became front-page news all over the region.

A Barnyard Murder

It all started on the evening of Friday November 17, 1911. Two children of George Stibbins, a wealthy local farmer, found their father sprawled in the mud of his barn lot. Stibbins was dead from a bullet to the back of the head. His body was by the corncrib door. Hogs rooted around his remains, and a lantern he had held lay at his side.

Suspicion immediately fell on Stibbins’s children. They made no attempt to inform their mother, nor did they pursue a possible assailant. The sheriff wasn’t even notified until Saturday. In fact, the authorities were the ones to inform the widow that her husband had been shot. Further, all of the children denied hearing a gun shot, even though a revolver was later found lying in the mud at the scene.

All kinds of theories regarding the family’s behavior that night were floated. Many suspected that the reason the body was left in the barn lot so long was so that it would be mutilated by the hogs, thus destroying evidence. The killing made public the dissension, already well known by neighbors, that had been rife within the family. There had been major disagreements, most notably over how the farm should be run. In fact, the children had previously tried to have their father declared insane so they could take over the farm.

An Arrest (and then another!)

The child with perhaps the worst relationship with Stibbins was the oldest son, Edward. Stibbins had banned Edward from sleeping in the house (although he would often sneak in and stay the night). After the Knox County sheriff department investigated the murder, it arrested Edward on November 19. Edward pleaded not guilty and hired the noted Indianapolis attorney Eph Inman to defend him.

A few days later, authorities arrested another son, Ray Stibbins, and charged him with the murder, as well.

An image of the monument for George Stibbins.
Monument of the murdered George Stibbins in Hamline Chapel Cemetery overlooking the Harrison Township countryside. Image sourced from Hidden History of Vincennes & Knox County, courtesy of the author’s collection.

The (Local) Trial of the Century

By the time the trial began, in the spring of 1912, the two brothers were being defended by four attorneys. It would be the longest trial in county history. Nearly one hundred subpoenas had been issued for witnesses, forty-nine by the state and forty-nine by the defense.

The courtroom was packed each day, with standing room only. The trial was big news well beyond the immediate area, and numerous reporters from other cities were in the courtroom. The brothers were described as thin and pale after having spent so many months confined in jail.

Factories even closed some afternoons so employees could attend the trial, and the high school let out early one Friday to allow students to hear closing arguments. Once night sessions began, a Bloomfield theater lost all business.

Although the trial was front-page news in local papers every day, on April 14, the ocean liner RMS Titanic struck an iceberg and sank in the north Atlantic with the loss of more than 1,500 lives. From that time on, the proceedings were reported alongside updates of that historic event.

The prosecution tried introducing evidence taken from a dictograph machine, a new and unreliable piece of technology. The device had been hidden in the Stibbins boys’ jail cell in Vincennes with a receiver for officials to listen in on their conversations, but the evidence was not conclusive due to problems with the sound.

In the end, the two defendants spent hours on the stand, fervently denying their guilt. Both men broke down while giving testimony. The defense did not attempt to prove that the murder had been committed by a third party; rather, their theory was that George Stibbins had committed suicide.

Time for a Verdict – and a New Vincennes Obsession

After nineteen days, the case went to the jury, and after six and a half hours of deliberations, the jury reached its verdict. The verdict of not guilty was read in court by the deputy clerk at 8:10 a.m. Six ballots had been taken before the jury voted to acquit.

To this day, the murder of farmer George Stibbins remains unsolved. But that wasn’t the only mystery this crazy case raised.

As a reporter covering the trial for the Vincennes Commercial wrote in the April 28 edition, “Everybody in the town has been talking the case, from the first grade in the schools to the oldest man living here and nothing else is talked. What the town will do for entertainment when the verdict is returned is a mystery.”

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Kobe Bryant: Big City Star & Small Town MVP

People all over the world are sharing their stories about Kobe Bryant and the impact he made on their lives. He reached so many people on a personal level and many of us find ourselves surprised at the depth of emotion that his tragic death stirs in us. When news of his passing reached us, we searched through our archives to see if we perhaps had any stories about Kobe that might not hit the mainstream radar. We found a couple.

Donofrio Championship, 1995

The year before Kobe made his NBA debut, he competed in the Donofrio basketball tournament in Conshohocken, a suburb of Philadelphia. Before you ask…yes, they won the tournament. And yes, Kobe was named MVP, an accolade he shared with teammate Donnie Carr, now an assistant coach at La Salle. (Donnie shared some of his own memories of Kobe recently with The Philadelphia Enquirer that you can read here.). Images below come from the book Conshohocken & West Conshohocken Sports from Arcadia Publishing.

Joe “Jellybean” Bryant, on the left, poses with his son Kobe at the Donofrio Championship Conoshohocken, PA in 1996.
Kobe and the Sonny Hill Juniors
Kobe, No 21 in front left, poses with the rest of the Sonny Hill Juniors after winning the 1995 tournament.

Kobe & The Beach Ball Classic

We found more info on Kobe in Ian Guernin’s book, The Beach Ball Classic, an annual tournament in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. According to Beach Ball Classic officials, Bryant dominated the 1995 tournament, scoring 45 points in two of the three tournament games in which he played. While his team, Lower Merion High School, didn’t win the tournament that year, Kobe did end up taking home honors in the Slam Dunk Contest.

Lester Earl & Kobe Bryant at the 1995 Beach Ball Classic
Lester Earl (left) and Kobe Bryant split the Slam Dunk Contest top honors in 1995, when the two were among a jam-packed field of individual talent. Photo courtesy of BBC archives.

Mamba Forever

Kobe Bryant may have played his entire career among the glitz and glamor of Los Angeles, but it’s small towns across the world where he arguably had his greatest impact, inspiring a generation of youngsters to believe in themselves and find their own mamba mentality.

The Maceos of Galveston: Crime in the Island City

How did two Italian immigrants help transform Galveston, the island city on the Texas Gulf Coast, into the Playground of the Southwest? From its earliest days in the 1800s, Galveston was separated from the rest of colonized Texas. Its island setting meant pirates, privateers, and prostitutes could easily escape the law. In the early 20th century, Galveston’s official and unofficial leaders sought to manage gambling and prostitution by limiting it to a few blocks know as the Line, where they essentially “looked the other way.” While Galveston was filled with politicians, crusaders, bootleggers, madams, and prostitutes, it was the immigrant Maceos who bound them all together. For decades, politicians and cops knew the economic value that the illicit activities brought to the city, but kept them concealed, with an “out-of-sight, out-of-mind” philosophy.

I did not see them as thugs or even as criminals; they were insatiable entrepreneurs and brilliant businessmen who just so happened to have a few undertakings that were illegal because of the government’s misguided desire to legislate morality and a flawed system that perpetuates the notion that vices are crimes (they are not).

– Kimber Fountain in The Maceos and the Free State of Galveston

Bootlegging Barbers

On January 16, 1919, the United States Senate ratified the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which enacted a nationwide ban on the production, distribution, sale, and consumption of alcohol. While supply was removed, demand remained, which created a new black market for booze. Brothers Rose and Sam Maceo, exiles from New Orleans, tired of being poor barbers, found a better revenue source — bootlegging. Rose and Sam’s friendship with crime boss Dutch Voight meant the two would be welcome in the so-called Downtown Gang and Beach Gang. While vice had flourished for decades, the port city’s crime scene matured once the Sicilian brothers found their new calling — and their barbershop was the perfect front.

An image of the Hollywood Dinner Club owned by the Maceos.
The Hollywood Dinner Club was built in 1926 on the corner of Sixty-First Street and Stewart Road. Image sourced from The Maceos and The Free State of Galveston: An Authorized History, courtesy of the Rosenberg Library.

City Boosters

Rose and Sam loved their new home and it showed. In 1920, as generous philanthropists, they donated to local charities and established the Galveston Beach Association to promote Galveston as a resort destination. Sure, the island city had the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico to draw tourists, but events like the Bathing Girl Revue enticed thousands more to town. As restaurateurs and boosters, the Maceos were recognized by the Chamber of Commerce in 1924, while their Chop Suey Cafe and the posh Hollywood Dinner Club provided perfect cover for back-room gambling. Because of their commitment to the well-being of Galveston, the Maceos dominance increased, even as lawmakers and cops witnessed it; but the Maceo empire flourished.

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There’s nothing you can do about gambling in the Balinese or in Galveston because the juries simply won’t convict a man for gambling down there.

– Homer Garrison, Chief of the Texas Department of Public Safety
An image of Rose Maceo with local Galveston authorities.
Photograph taken inside Murdoch’s pier of Rose Maceo seated in front of (right to left) Anthony Fertitta, Sheriff Frank Biaggne and Constable “Rabbit” Feigle. Image sourced from The Maceos and The Free State of Galveston: An Authorized History.

The End

By the 1950s, state and federal government had found ways to successfully crack down on organized crime. The brothers sought to dilute their own stakes in their venues by bringing on family members and old business associates, but the law was closing in on their once impenetrable empire. After the brothers had both passed away, the family was split into pieces, and several members were hit with tax evasion. In 1965, the family saw the Maceo’s legendary entertainment (and gambling) landmark Balinese Room sold at auction. Today, Rose and Sam’s legacy as gracious hosts and philanthropists can be found in their distant cousin, beloved Houston billionaire Tilman Fertitta.

An image of the original Balinese Room owned by the Maceos, circa 1942.
Side view of the original Balinese Room, circa 1942. Guests had to walk down a six-hundredfoot covered pier to get to the club. Image sourced from The Maceos and The Free State of Galveston: An Authorized History, courtesy of Rosenberg Library.
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Austin, Texas 101: 10 Books You Should Know

Austin, Texas is one of America’s most interesting cities. From the dynamic food and music culture to the frontier spirit and forgotten tales of old, it continues to captivate all who visit. Hundreds of books have been written about Austin, and we’ve compiled a list of 10 that we believe every Austinite should know and have in their personal libraries. Enjoy!

Images of America: Lost Austin

Lost Austin TexasKnown to some as “Capitol City,” “River City,” and “Groover’s Paradise,” Austin is a diverse mix of university professors, students, politicians, musicians, state employees, artists, and both blue-collar and white-collar workers. The city is also home to the main campus of the University of Texas and several other universities. As Austin has grown to become more cosmopolitan, remnants of its small-town heritage have faded away. Austin’s uniqueness—both past and present —is reflected in its food, architecture, historic places, music, and businesses. Many of these beloved institutions have moved on into history. While some are far removed in the mists of time, others are more recent and generate fond memories of good times and vivid experiences. Images of America: Lost Austin explores, through the collections of the Austin History Center and others, where Austinites once shopped, ate, drank, and played.


Haunted Austin: History & Hauntings in the Capital City

Haunted Austin: History & Hauntings in the Capital City

A killer lurks in the dark streets, victimizing servant girls throughout 1885, and Austin becomes the first American city to claim a serial killer. The spirits of convicts wander amidst the manicured grounds of the Texas State Capitol while inside a public servant assassinated in 1903 still haunts the corridors. These are just a few of the strange and frightening tales of Haunted Austin. Within these pages lies evidence that the frontier bravado legendary in so many Texas men and women lives on long after death. Author Jeanine Plumer explores the sinister history of the city and attempts to answer the question: why do so many ghosts linger in Austin?


Party Weird: Festivals & Fringe Gatherings of Austin

Party Weird: Festivals & Fringe Gatherings of Austin

In 1839, Texas officials toasted their new capital of Austin, and its citizens never ran out of excuses for revelry. Austinites celebrate their homegrown and vibrant culture, renowned and innovative music, street life and collective quirkiness with pride. While world-class events now call the city home, in a culture that eschews conformity at every turn, Austin’s underground social gatherings are what truly earn it bragging rights. Discover the grass-roots origins of the enigmatic eccentricity that has drawn people from all corners of Texas and now from the whole world. Feel the beat of drum circles at Eeyore’s Birthday Party in April, sling puns at the annual O. Henry Pun-Off or share a meal with strangers at the monthly Perpetual Potluck Picnic–or Jim O’s, as the locals say. Author Howie Richey explores the offbeat, exuberant culture and history of the city that started with a party that just didn’t stop.


Images of America: Austin, Texas

Images of America Austin Texas

Featured here in over 200 vintage photographs is the history of this independent city, and the people who made it what it is today. Land agent Stephen F. Austin brought the first Anglo settlers to the Spanish territory in 1821 and guided them until independence in 1836. Seen here are the images that capture the spirit of those original pioneers and their achievements, including the French Legation, the construction of the capitol, and the Texas governor’s mansion, the oldest governor’s residence west of the Mississippi. Also pictured are the familiar faces of Austin’s long history, including Austin’s first mayor, Edwin Waller, and past governor Alan Shivers.


Austin In the Jazz Age

Austin in the Jazz Age

Though renowned as a great music city today, Austin’s contemporary music scene pales in comparison with the explosion of creative talent the city spawned during the Jazz Age. Dozens of musicians who started out in the capital city attained national and international fame—but music was just one form of artistic expression that marked that time of upheaval. World War I’s death and destruction bred a vehement rejection of the status quo. In its place, an enthusiastic adherence to life lived without question or consequence took root. The sentiment found fertile soil in Austin, with the University of Texas at the epicenter. Students indulged in the debauchery that typified the era, scandalizing Austin and Texas at large as they introduced a freewheeling, individualistic attitude that now defines the city. Join author Richard Zelade in a raucous investigation of the day and its most outstanding and outlandish characters.


Austin Beer: Capital City History On Tap

Austin Beer: Capital City History on Tap

Austin might be known for its live music, but its beer scene is just as vibrant and historic. As early as 1860, German immigrant Johann Schneider started brewing beer out of a saloon on Congress Avenue, later crafting innovative brew vaults, the first of their kind in the city. Proving that Austin taste buds were thirsty for something more dynamic than a Lonestar, the end of the twentieth century and beginning of the twenty-first saw a huge boom in craft beer production by native Austinites and transplants alike, creating a culture of local beer advocates, homebrewing enthusiasts and innovators that could only come out of Austin. Join the ladies behind hilarious and informative beer blog BitchBeer.org as they explore Austin beer history, developments and culture–complete with read-along drinking games and local beer pairings.


Legends & Lore of the Texas Capitol

Legends & Lore of the Texas Capitol

From its beginning as one of the most ambitious construction projects west of the Mississippi, the imposing red granite Lone Star statehouse loomed large in Texas lore. The iconic landmark rests on a foundation of election rigging, an unsolved murder, land swaps and pre-dedication blackmail. It bore witness to the first meeting between LBJ and Lady Bird, as well as a bizarre resolution honoring the Boston Strangler. Mike Cox digs up a quarry’s worth of the capitol’s untold history, cataloguing everything from its ghost stories to its public art and collectible tourist kitsch.


Austin Breakfast Tacos: The Story of the Most Important Taco of the Day

Austin Breakfast Tacos

Fresh tortillas, fluffy huevos con bacon and spicy salsa–good morning, Austin. Or good afternoon, evening, night–whenever From taco tailgates to taquerias, there is a taco for every occasion and persuasion. Some say that it was born in the days of cowboys and vaqueros, and others say it was a creation of the Tex-Mex culture, but one thing is certain: the breakfast taco has taken over the Capital City. From South Congress to North Austin, neon and chalkboard signs tempt hungry passersby with their best morning-time handheld bites. With over forty breakfast taco recipes, Mando Rayo and Jarod Neece investigate (and masticate) the history, culture and traditions of that indelible and delectable Austin treat: the breakfast taco..


1960s Austin Gangsters

1960s Austin Gangsters

Timmy Overton of Austin and Jerry Ray James of Odessa were football stars who traded athletics for lives of crime. The original rebels without causes, nihilists with Cadillacs and Elvis hair, the Overton gang and their associates formed a ragtag white trash mafia that bedazzled Austin law enforcement for most of the 1960s. Tied into a loose network of crooked lawyers, pimps and used car dealers who became known as the “traveling criminals,” they burglarized banks and ran smuggling and prostitution rings all over Texas. Author Jesse Sublett presents a detailed account of these Austin miscreants, who rose to folk hero status despite their violent criminal acts.


Postcard History Series: Austin

Postcard History Series: Austin 9780738570679

As the capital of Texas, Austin has a long and colorful history. The first residents were nomadic Native Americans who camped here as long ago as 9000 BC because of the area’s beauty, the clear Colorado River, and the wildlife. These are the very same things that attract people to Austin today. Originally called Waterloo, Austin has grown from a tiny town on the edge of the western frontier in 1839 into the capital city it is today. The University of Texas lent prestige, the state government erected buildings, the railroads came to town, and Congress Avenue—the “main street” of Texas—filled with thriving businesses.


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Discover Fascinating Facts & Stories About Your Home Town

We LOVE the zip code tool on Arcadia Publishing’s website. Simply enter your zip code and get search results for books about the place where you live, grew up, or want to move. Try it now!