Author Spotlight: Nathaniel Hawthorne

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Between his role in politics and prolific literary career, Nathaniel Hawthorne is one of the most well-known figures in American culture. Much of his work was dark romantic, a subgenre of Romanticism that explored the grotesque underbelly of society. He is most known for his work The Scarlet Letter – a publication that helped secure his place in the literary scene. Today, Hawthorne is recognized as one of the figures who helped transform the legacy of literature in America. Here, we’re taking a deep dive into the life of one of America’s most famous writers. 

The Writer’s Life Begins in Salem, MA

Hawthorne’s family stretches far into Salem’s history: his great-great-grandfather oversaw the Salem witch trials, while his great-great-great-grandfather held many important political positions. Although Hawthorne was born in Salem in 1804, he spent much of his childhood growing up in Maine – a time that he would recall fondly later in life. He was sent to Salem for formal schooling in 1819. While there, he began flexing his literary muscles, writing seven issues of The Spectator, a homemade newspaper with essays and commentary, in August and September of 1820. 

Against his wishes, the young writer was compelled to enroll in college by his uncle. He started at Bowdoin College in 1821. Here he met future president Franklin Pierce and writer Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. After graduating in 1825, Hawthorne started as an editor at the American Magazine for Useful and Entertaining Knowledge. He wrote some of his earliest stories: “Young Goodman Brown” and “The Minister’s Black Veil,” though neither won him any acclaim. In 1837, Twice-Told Tales, a collection of his stories was published and gained Hawthorne local recognition. 

Hawthorne married longtime sweetheart Sophia Peabody in 1842. Like Hawthorne, Peabody was a recluse. The two had a long and happy marriage, having three children together. Peabody wrote in her journal how greatly she admired her husband’s work, while Hawthorne referred to her as his “dove” and his “sole companion.”

A portrait of Nathaniel Hawthorne. Reprinted from Hidden History of the Sebago Lakes Region by Marilyn Weymouth Seguin, courtesy of the Library of Congress (pg. 65, The History Press, 2015).

 A Writing Rough Patch Followed by Fame

In 1846, Hawthorne took a job at the Port of Salem. During this time, he repeatedly remarked about his inability to write. He was greatly affected by his mother’s death, noting it in his journal as one of the darkest times of his life. After two years of struggling to get words on the page, he finally returned to writing The Scarlet Letter. He finished the novel and published it in 1850. The book was a massive success, becoming the first mass-produced book in the country, and sold 2,500 copies in ten days. Despite its popularity, the book was met with mixed reviews. Some condemned the story for its morbid details and dark subject, but others praised the writing, calling it one of the greatest books of the century. However, it was largely considered a success. 

In 1853, Hawthorne wrote a biography of his friend Franklin Pierce. When Pierce was elected president, Hawthorne was given a foreign service role, and served within Pierce’s inner circle. By 1860, Hawthorne had finished his tenure in Pierce’s administration and returned to his family home. 

The Final Years

During the Civil War, Hawthorne made one trip to Washington D.C. to meet with President Abraham Lincoln. His trip inspired the essay “Chiefly about War Matters,” which was published in 1862. After this, his failing health prevented him from making any further trips. While traveling through the White Mountains in New Hampshire in 1864, he died in his sleep. Hawthorne was buried in a section of Sleep Hollow Cemetery known as “Author’s Ridge” in Concord, Massachusetts. 

Hawthorne was one of the first American writers to explore dark romanticism. By centering his work around the flaws in human nature, he opened a door to a new, dim realm of literature. His work, primarily The Scarlet Letter, has received many critics over the years, examining the work through both a historic and feminist lens. While readers of his work might still find it controversial today, Hawthorne helped sculpt an era of literature in America and whose work is still read and appreciated today. 

7 Famous Must-See American Skyscrapers

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The world’s first skyscraper was built in Chicago in 1885. Since then, Americans have been working to build higher and higher into the sky, creating some of the country’s most historic and impressive feats of architecture. Today, many skyscrapers around the country are popular attractions for tourists, along with being functional buildings for residents. These seven skyscrapers are ones you cannot miss. 

Empire State Building

The Empire State Building. Reprinted from New York City Skyscrapers by Richard Panchyk (pg. 92, Arcadia Publishing, 2010).

This 102-story skyscraper in Midtown Manhattan, New York City is an iconic tower of the New York skyline. It was completed in 1931, and for 40 years was the tallest building in the world. As of 2019, it is the fifth tallest building in the United States. Observation decks on the 86th and 102nd floors offer visitors an unforgettable view of Lower Manhattan. Since its construction, the Empire State Building has become a cultural iconic, appearing in famous movies like King Kong. It’s been named one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World by the American Society of Civil Engineers, and has been designated a city landmark. 

One World Trade Center

Considered the tallest skyscraper in the United States, New York City’s One World Trade Center stands at 1,776 feet tall. The height was an ode to the year that the Declaration of Independence was signed. It was built near Ground Zero, where the Twin Towers were destroyed by the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Construction began in 2006, and completed in 2013, with the One World Observatory opening in 2015. Today, visitors can ride the bullet elevator to the top for a stunning view of the Manhattan skyline. 

Willis Tower

Sears Tower. Reprinted from Sears in Chicago: A Century of Memories by Val Perry Rendel, courtesy of Walter Kadlubowski (pg. 97, The History Press, 2019).

Formerly known as the Sears Tower, the Willis Tower in Chicago, Illinois was the tallest building in the United States upon its completion in 1973. Today, it is one of Chicago’s most popular tourist attractions, and is home to corporate offices of some of the country’s most prominent companies, like United Airlines and Morgan Stanley. Like the Empire State Building, the Willis Tower has appeared in films like The Dark Night, I, Robot, Man of Steel, and Transformers: Dark of the Moon.

Transamerica Pyramid

The Transamerica Pyramid is an eye-catching tower in the San Francisco skyline. When it was completed in 1972, it was the tallest building in the city, standing at 853 feet. Unlike most skyscrapers in America, the base of the Transamerica Pyramid is surrounded by a park. Redwood Park contains a handful of planted redwood trees famous to the state of California. Filled with grassy areas, benches, and sculptures, the park is a favorite for visitors and residents alike. Since its inception, the Transamerica Pyramid has become a symbol of the city of San Francisco, and it welcomes visitors to explore its grounds.

The John Hancock Center

The John Hancock Center. Reprinted from The Magnificent Mile Lights Festival by Ellen S. Farrar, courtesy of the Great North Michigan Avenue Association (pg. 24, Arcadia Publishing, 2008).

The John Hancock Center stands today as the fourth tallest building in Chicago. Inside are several restaurants, businesses, and apartments. It holds the third-highest residence in the world, trailing the Burj Khalifa and Trump Tower in Chicago. On the 95th floor is a restaurant where diners can gaze out onto Lake Michigan. From the sky deck, visitors can see up to 80 miles away on a clear day, look into four states, and get a 360 degree view of the city. 

Union Square

Unlike the other skyscrapers on this list, Union Square in Seattle consists of two buildings. One Union Square is a 455-foot tower, while Two Union Square is a 797-foot tower. The former finished construction in 1981, while the second was completed eight years later in 1989. The two towers are home to several large American corporations including Apple Inc., Morgan Stanley, The Lyman Group, and more. Together, they mark an iconic section of Seattle’s skyline.

Chrysler Building

The Chrysler building. Reprinted from New York City Skyscrapers by Richard Panchyk (pg. 89, Arcadia Publishing, 2010).

New York City’s Art Deco-style skyscraper was the world’s tallest building for eleven months before the Empire State Building concluded construction. Architecturally, the Chrysler Building is uniquely known as tallest brick building in the world made with a steel framework. When work was complete, there were mixed reviews about its design. Some called it lazy and unoriginal, while others argued that it was modernist. Today, the Chrysler Building is considered one of the most iconic buildings in America for its architectural style. 

For decades, American architects having dared themselves to reach further into the sky, creating expansive and impressive feats of modern design and engineering. In most major cities around the country, there is an iconic skyscraper that the skyline would be incomplete without. These projects never cease to enthrall their visitors, whether it be from their design to their sheer height. From New York City to Seattle, these are just some of the nation’s most famous skyscrapers worth visiting. 

Who are California’s Most Infamous Serial Killers?

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As one of the states to produce the most serial killers nationwide, over 1,600 California residents have been murdered by a serial killer since 1900. Between the 1960s and 1980s, serial killings more than doubled in California and throughout the United States, instilling terror into the general population. Here, we explore ten of California’s most infamous convicted and unidentified serial killers of the 20th century.

The Golden State Killer

Status: Suspect currently beginning trial as of publication on July 12, 2018.
Name: Joseph James DeAngelo
Years Active: 1974-1986
Number of Victims: 12 confirmed, but could have been as many as 13

Also known as the “Original Night Stalker,” the “East Area Rapist,” and the “Visalia Ransacker,” the Golden State Killer terrorized both the Sacramento and Southern California areas over the course of twelve years. Responsible for at least 12 murders, he also committed over 100 burglaries and raped at least 50 different women. He became known for attacking couples in their homes for hours at a time, tying both victims up and threatening to kill them both if they made too much noise. Eventually, the killer made good onthese threats, as he turned to both raping and then murdering his victims by shooting or bludgeoning them. 

The murderer was also known to communicate with the police and press, calling news agencies sometimes to talk about his crimes, but also to “talk about his day.” His case remained cold for thirty years, but the hunt for the Golden State Killer was reopened by the FBI in 2016 with a larger reward for his capture. After tracing DNA through a genealogical tree, former police officer Joseph James DeAngelo was arrested on eight counts of murder with special circumstances, with an additional four counts of first-degree murder added later on. It’s believed that DeAngelo used his status as a police officer to stay one step ahead of the authorities investigating him, and that some of his crimes may have overlapped with his duties as an officer before he was fired for shoplifting in 1979.  DeAngelo’s DNA matched at least one of the crime scenes attributed to the Golden State Killer. DeAngelo is currently awaiting trial for his crimes.

The Gypsy Hill Killings

Status: Suspect currently awaiting trial as of publication on July 12, 2018.
Name: Rodney Halbower
Years Active: 1976
Number of Victims: 5 confirmed, but could have been as many as 7

Also known as the “San Mateo Slasher,” the Gypsy Hill murders were a series of five homicides of young women and girls in San Mateo County, CA. The victims were all brunette women found in wooded areas after being stabbed to death. It’s thought that most of the victims experienced car trouble just prior to fatally meeting with the killer. Most of the victims were teenagers at the time of their deaths, although one victim was 26. The murders were difficult to investigate due to a lack of witnesses and of analyzable forensic evidence. As a result, no suspects were found until a (seemingly) unrelated murder was solved – the murder of Michelle Mitchell in 1976.

Originally attributed to a woman named Cathy Woods, Michelle Mitchell’s killer was later revealed by advanced DNA evidence to be Rodney Halbower. Halbower, who had served time in both Nevada and Oregon for crimes ranging from kidnapping to attempted murder, was linked to Mitchell’s murder after his DNA was collected in an Oregon prison. The DNA from Mitchell’s murder subsequently matched to two of the Gypsy Hill killings. After exonerating Woods for Mitchell’s murder, Halbower was extradited from Oregon to California, where he is currently stands trial. 

The Manson Family Murders

Status: Solved
Names: Charles Manson, Tex Watson, Susan Atkins, among others.
Years Active: 1969
Number of Victims: 8

Perhaps one of the most infamous serial killers in California, Charles Manson (and the cult he led) murdered actress Sharon Tate and four of her friends in her home at 1500 Cielo Drive in August of 1969. Manson, who had a long history of crime and imprisonment, led a quasi-community nicknamed the Manson Family, who viewed Manson as a Jesus-like figure. Although Tate and her guests (which included hair stylist Jay Sebring, screenwriter Wojchiech Frykowski, heiress Abigail Folger, and 18-year-old Steven Parent) were not in any way connected to the Manson family, Manson purposefully targeted the inhabitants of 1500 Cielo Drive. Prior to Tate and her husband Roman Polanski, the address on Cielo Drive had belonged to Terry Melcher, a record producer who had failed to sign Manson to a record deal. Authorities believe that Manson’s anger towards Melcher was what inspired him to order the killings, as he called for his followers to “go to the former home of Terry Melcher and kill everyone on the premises.” 

After being displeased with how the Tate murders had been conducted, Manson led the murders of Leno LaBianca and Rosemary LaBianca the next day. After a raid of the Manson Family’s ranch, Manson was charged with the various murders, and was sentenced to death. When California suspended the death sentence in 1976 (only to reinstate it in the 1990s), he was sentenced to life in prison. After being denied parole numerous times since the 1970s, Manson died in prison in November of 2017.

The Santa Rosa Hitchhiker Murders

Status: Unsolved
Years Active: 1972-1973
Number of Victims: 7 confirmed, but could have been as many as 14.

The Santa Rosa Hitchhiker Murders occurred in 1972 and 1973 in the North Bay, California area. The female victims of these murders were all found nude in rural areas near steep embankments, or in creek beds along a roadside. Originally, only seven victims, who ranged in ages from 12 to approximately 23 years old, were thought to be connected with the serial killer. However, the FBI released a report in 1975 claiming that there were a series of fourteen connected homicides, which included the original seven Santa Rosa Hitchhiker murders. 

The cause of death for victims was typically asphyxiation due to being strangled with a cord of some nature. Many possible murder suspects were proposed, ranging from the Zodiac Killer to Ted Bundy, but no one was ever prosecuted, and the case has gone cold in Sonoma County. DNA from the crime scenes was submitted to a national DNA database to search for matches in 2011, but the case has seen no significant development. However, “Hunted,” a Santa Rose Hitchhiker murders documentary coming out in 2022, will look deeper into the case. 

The Scorecard Killer

Status: Solved
Name: Randy Steven Kraft
Years Active: 1971-1983
Number of Victims: 16 confirmed, but could have been as many as 67

Also known as the “Southern California Strangler,” serial killer Randy Kraft, the Scorecard Killer, was arrested in 1983 with his last victim’s corpse still in his vehicle. Kraft had been on a murder spree since early 1971, known for drugging young Marines (typically in their late teens or early 20s), before sexually abusing and then killing them. Victims were typically lured into Kraft’s car by being promised a drive or alcohol; several of them were also tortured by Kraft in their drugged state. Kraft then discarded their bodies, typically along a freeway in Southern California, gaining him a nickname (though it was less used) of the “Freeway Killer.”  

Kraft was eventually questioned in relation to the disappearance and murder of his fifteenth victim, as witnesses had cited his car. However, Kraft was not arrested at the time because of a rock-solid alibi. Kraft continued to kill various young men after this interrogation and was not positively identified as the Scorecard Killer until he was pulled over for erratic driving and a dead boy was found in his vehicle. A subsequent search of Kraft’s belongings revealed photographs of many of his victims while drugged or dead, and a three-ring binder with a hand-written list of 67 coded names, which are believed to correspond to each of his victims. Unfortunately, a great deal of these names were never decoded. Kraft was subsequently convicted of only 16 murders in 1989 and currently awaits execution on California’s Death Row.

The Zodiac Killer

Status: Unsolved
Years Active: 1960s-1970s
Number of Victims: 7 confirmed, but he claims to have murdered 37

Who is the Zodiac Killer? That question haunted the 60s and 70s, as the Zodiac gained his moniker from taunting letters sent to the San Francisco Bay Area press and police, which opened with the infamous line of “this is the Zodiac speaking.” Although he claimed to have murdered as many as 37 individuals, only seven victims have been confirmed, two of which survived their encounter with the Zodiac. Couples were typically targeted by the Zodiac Killer, and several victims were either shot or stabbed. The Zodiac Killer was also known for sending ciphers to the police. The three-part solved cipher revealed a rambling, heavily misspelled note that the Zodiac was “collecting slaves for the afterlife,” as he believed his victims would be forced to be his slaves when he died. Later ciphers supposedly reveal the name of the killer himself. Recently in 2021, the FBI confirmed that one of his most famous ciphers had been solved by a team of codebreakers, but no identity was confirmed. While no one has been prosecuted as the Zodiac Killer, the main suspect in the Zodiac case, Arthur Leigh Allen, passed away in 1992 due to natural causes. The cases remains an open investigation within the state of California to this day.

The Grim Sleeper

Status: Solved
Name: Lonnie David Franklin Jr.
Years Active: 1985-2007, with a hiatus from 1988-2002
Number of Victims: 10 confirmed, but could have been as many as 25 or more

Dubbed the “Grim Sleeper” because his last two victims followed a 14-year hiatus from killing, Lonnie David Franklin Jr. was convicted in 2016 of murdering at least ten different African-American women in Los Angeles. Most of his victims were sex workers, and their murders were originally marked as “NHI,” an acronym for “No Humans Involved,” which was used to explain the death of many involved with prostitution and drugs. It wasn’t until the community pressured the LAPD that the deaths were investigated as serial killings. Many of the Grim Sleeper victims were shot with a .25 caliber gun, and were targeted for their vulnerability. Only one of his victims, Laura Moore, is known to have survived. She was shot six times in Franklin’s car after Franklin approached her at a bus station and offered her a ride. Ironically, this ride was supposedly offered to avoid the then-21 year old Moore being picked up by “bad men.” Moore provided a description of him which, along with collected DNA evidence, eventually led to his arrest in 2010. Franklin Jr. was tried and convicted for the ten confirmed murders and is currently on California’s Death Row awaiting execution. A Grim Sleeper documentary has since premiered on HBO in 2014. 

The Doodler

Status: Unsolved
Years Active: 1974-1975
Number of Victims: 5 confirmed, but may have been as many as 14.

Thought to be responsible for up to fourteen murders and three assaults, The Doodler attacked members of the gay community in San Francisco, California. Meeting his victims at gay nightclubs, bars, or restaurants, the Doodler would draw sketches of his victims as a “friendly” gesture, luring them into leaving a public venue with him. Afterwards, the Doodler would take his victims to a secluded spot (typically a park or waterfront), where he would engage in sexual relations with them before stabbing them to death and leaving their bodies in the park. 

Only three men are known to have survived an attack by the Doodler, all of whom were thoroughly questioned by police. Although these interrogations helped produce the sketch seen above, the prime suspect for these murders was never prosecuted, as all three assault survivors refused to testify against him, as they feared “outing” themselves to society as gay men. The survivors are said to have included both a “well-known entertainer,” and a European diplomat, although they have never been revealed to the public. Today, the case has gone cold, and very little information is known about the suspect, as his name was never released to the public. Similarly, the sketches made of victims by the Doodler have never been released to the press.

The Night Stalker

Status: Solved
Name: Richard Ramirez
Years Active: 1984-1985
Number of Victims: 13

Convicted of murdering at least thirteen people in the mid-80s, Richard Ramirez, also known as the “Night Stalker,” terrorized the greater Los Angeles area by invading homes and sexually assaulting and murdering his victims. His killings were remarkably brutal, and his first attack as the “Night Stalker” on 79-year-old Jennie Vincow ended with the elderly woman being nearly decapitated. These attacks continued throughout 1984 and 1985. Ramirez frequently targeted couples, killing the husband or boyfriend before raping and then sometimes killing their partner. He used a wide range of weaponry, even including a machete and a tire iron. He was also an avowed Satanist, leaving a pentagram at several crime scenes, and demanding that his victims “swear on Satan” that they wouldn’t scream. 

At least five of his victims survived their encounters, who helped to provide descriptions to aid the police on the hunt for the serial killer. A fingerprint recovered from a crime scene soon linked Ramirez to the killings. He was subsequently detained by a group of Californians, who physically beat him to prevent him from running away before police could arrive to arrest him. Ramirez was convicted on 13 counts of murder, 5 counts of attempted murder, 11 counts of sexual assault, and 14 counts of burglary in 1989, and was sentenced to death. Ramirez passed away in prison due to natural causes while awaiting execution in 2013.

The Freeway Killer

Status: Solved
Names: William Bonin, with assistance by Vernon Butts and Gregory Miley
Years Active: 1979-1980
Number of Victims: 21 confirmed, but could have been as many as 36

Active throughout southern California in the late 70s, William Bonin, the Freeway Killer, sexually assaulted and tortured most of his victims before leaving their mutilated bodies alongside California freeways. Targeting young male hitchhikers, schoolboys, or prostitutes, the Freeway Killer forced his victims into a Ford Econoline van, tied them up, then assaulted and tortured them. At least one of his victims was made to drink hydrochloric acid, while three had ice picks shoved through their ears. More often, however, the killer would simply strangle his victims with their own t-shirts after he had finished mutilating them. All of the victims were between the ages of 12 and 19. 

However, in the case of at least one man named William Pugh, the Freeway Killer failed to assault him, and instead bragged about how he enjoyed torturing and killing young men for sexual pleasure. The case had few leads until Pugh, who had been brought into police on unrelated charges, overhead the police discussing the murders and recognized them as being attributed to a man named William Bonin. Consequently, the LAPD began surveillance of Bonin in 1980. Nine days after this surveillance began, Bonin was observed driving erratically while trying to draw boys into the vehicle. The police followed the vehicle until it stopped in a parking lot. They heard muffled screaming coming from inside the van and forced their way in. Police discovered Bonin in the process of sexually assaulting and strangling yet another young victim. Bonin was quickly arrested for rape of a minor and on suspicion of murder. Several pieces of incriminating evidence were found in the van, including a scrapbook of news clippings related to his crimes. Bonin was convicted in 1981 and 1983 of murder in two separate counties and was executed by lethal injection for his crimes in 1996.

Tiki Takeover: Veteran Escapism and the Rise of 1950s Polynesian Pop

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In the years that followed the end of World War II, the United States experienced an unusual cultural trend: Polynesian Pop, more commonly known as Tiki. Along the West Coast and in areas nationwide, Tiki bars with thatched roofs began serving Mai Tai’s, and playing exotica music over the loudspeakers. While there were many factors that contributed to the mid-century Tiki craze, the experiences of World War II veterans helped to build Tiki into the industry that continues today.

The West Coast’s First Tiki Shack

While Tiki exploded in the years following World War II, America’s first true Tiki bar and restaurant opened in 1933 under the name Don the Beachcomber. Opened by Prohibition bootlegger Ernest Raymond Beaumont Gantt, Don the Beachcomber was the culmination of Gantt’s worldwide travels. Having spent nearly ten years travelling throughout the Caribbean and Polynesian islands, Gantt returned to Los Angeles in 1931 with no real plan, or a career.

Enter Don the Beachcomber. Using the cheapest liquor he could find (rum), Gantt began creating his now-famous “Rum Rhapsodies” – rum-based drinks composed of flavors similar to those he’d encountered during his
Polynesian travels.

The menu of LA’s Don the Beachcomber, the bar that played a vital role in the creation of Tiki Culture. Reprinted from California Tiki: A History of Polynesian Idols, Pineapple Cocktails and Coconut Palm Trees by Jason Henderson & Adam Foshko, courtesy of Wikimedia (pg. 27. The History Press, 2018).
The menu of LA’s Don the Beachcomber, the bar that played a vital role in the creation of Tiki Culture. Reprinted from California Tiki: A History of Polynesian Idols, Pineapple Cocktails and Coconut Palm Trees by Jason Henderson & Adam Foshko, courtesy of Wikimedia (pg. 27. The History Press, 2018).

Gantt’s drinks were a hit, and several of them became staples of Tiki cocktail culture, including the Zombie and the Navy Grog. Gantt paired his exotic cocktails with food cultivated largely from Cantonese cuisine, which he altered to be more suitable to an American palate. This resulted in several createive dishes and descriptions on the Tiki hut’s original menu, such as:

  • Cantonese Pork: Thinly sliced tenderloin of pork rolled in egg batter and sautted with pineapple and green peppers.
  • Chicken Almond: Tender chicken cooked with mushrooms, bamboo shoots, celery, onions, and water chestnuts.
  • Chungking Shrimp: Shredded shrimps cooked with pork, water chestnuts, eggs, and green onions.
  • Mandarin Duck: Boned, molded, crisped in peanut oil, and seved with wild plum sauce.
  • Beef Soyo: Tenderloin of beef sautted in soyo sauce with water chestnuts, onions, and bamboo shoots.

Although his dishes and drinks were far from authentic, the faux-tropical drink and dinner menu was a hit with Los Angeles locals and Hollywood elite: Frequented by figures such as Charlie Chaplin and Neil Vanderbilt, Gantt’s bar was a local treasure, and represented what many of its wealthy patrons had experienced while abroad.

However, the Polynesian themed bar didn’t develop truly universal appeal until Gantt (who later legally changed his name to Donn Beach) left for service in World War II, leaving his bar in the hands of his wife and business partner. Under her leadership and the after-effects of World War II, Tiki (and Don the Beachcomber) truly began to flourish.

The Post-World War II Tiki Boom

Although history may recognize the Pacific theater of World War II for being particularly violent given its use of nuclear technology, soldiers (and in particular, Navy sailors) often got a taste for island life during tours stationed in exotic locations like Bora Bora and Hawaii. Unlike the typical hustle-and-bustle of American culture, soliders found that the islands adopted a calmer, more laid-back lifestyle, which became appealing to men as they searched for some respite from the frenzy of war.

As a result of their experiences abroad, soldiers and sailors alike came back from active duty raving about their adventures in tropical locales, and with a desire to recreate their exotic Island experiences on the US mainland.

American forces at the Battle of Luzon, 1949, one of many battles of the Pacific theatre during WWII. Reprinted from California Tiki: A History of Polynesian Idols, Pineapple Cocktails and Coconut Palm Trees by Jason Henderson & Adam Foshko, courtesy of Wikimedia (pg. 19, The History Press, 2018).
American forces at the Battle of Luzon, 1949, one of many battles of the Pacific theatre during WWII. Reprinted from California Tiki: A History of Polynesian Idols, Pineapple Cocktails and Coconut Palm Trees by Jason Henderson & Adam Foshko, courtesy of Wikimedia (pg. 19, The History Press, 2018).

The experiences of Pacific theater armed forces were recounted in various ways following the war, but were most prominently represented in James A. Michener’s novel Tales of the South Pacific. Based largely off of Michener’s own experiences while deployed in the New Hebrides, the novel attempted to depict many aspects of Polynesian culture to the American people.

However, Tales of the South Pacific was most successful at capturing the “return to innocence” that many Americans were desperate to salvage after the jarring intensity of the war. This return to innocence would come, readers believed, through the concept of “Bali Ha’I,” a fictional island, perfectly happy and tranquil, which was always visible on the horizon, but couldn’t be visited. Bali Ha’I illustrated what people felt had been lost during WWII, and Tiki presented itself as a way to relax, if only for a moment.

James Michener’s account of fighting men clowning around between terrifying battles on a small island, just two years after the war. Reprinted from California Tiki: A History of Polynesian Idols, Pineapple Cocktails and Coconut Palm Trees by Jason Henderson & Adam Foshko, courtesy of Penguin Random House, 1947 (pg. 20, The History Press, 2018).
James Michener’s account of fighting men clowning around between terrifying battles on a small island, just two years after the war. Reprinted from California Tiki: A History of Polynesian Idols, Pineapple Cocktails and Coconut Palm Trees by Jason Henderson & Adam Foshko, courtesy of Penguin Random House, 1947 (pg. 20, The History Press, 2018).

Michener’s novel was massively influential after its release, even leading to a Rogers and Hammerstein musical based on its content. The impact of Michener and other veterans, combined with a post-war economy boom, was reflected in a sudden surge in Tiki. A large portion of Americans soon became obsessed with Tiki style, especially on the West Coast (with a close geographic proximity to Polynesia). For establishments like Don the Beachcomber, this meant exponential growth to sixteen different locations, and the appearance of competitors nationwide.

The Tiki Takeover of the 1950s and 60s

However, the obsession with Tiki extended much further than just bars and restaurants, and Tiki style also figured heavily into popular music and movies. Music genres like exotica, which attempted to combine musical elements with exotic sounds like bird calls, portrayed the sounds of a jungle island, and came to account for a quarter of all music sales during the 1950s and 60s. Records like Martin Denny’s Exotica and Les Baxter’s Le Sacre du Sauvage (The Ritual of the Savage) subsequently topped music charts. 

Two of the masterpieces of Tiki music: Martin Denny’s Exotica (1957) and Arthur Lyman’s Taboo (1958). Reprinted from California Tiki: A History of Polynesian Idols, Pineapple Cocktails and Coconut Palm Trees by Jason Henderson & Adam Foshko, courtesy of Liberty Records and HiFi Records (pg. 30, The History Press, 2018).
Two of the masterpieces of Tiki music: Martin Denny’s Exotica (1957) and Arthur Lyman’s Taboo (1958). Reprinted from California Tiki: A History of Polynesian Idols, Pineapple Cocktails and Coconut Palm Trees by Jason Henderson & Adam Foshko, courtesy of Liberty Records and HiFi Records (pg. 30, The History Press, 2018).

In movies, Tiki came to be associated with American surf culture, and movies like Gidget, which depicted a young girl joining the mounting surf culture under the influence of the Big Kahuna, a war veteran who chooses to ignore society within a tiny grass hut, became massive box-office hits. Including the major tenets of American Tiki, these movies helped to build the future surf culture of the 1960s and 70s.

Tiki Culture in the 21st Century

While the influence of the veterans of World War II and Donn Beach have faded, Tiki culture has not, even making a comeback during the late 20th and 21st centuries. This comeback began with Beach’s death in the late 80s, which led to bartenders nationwide attempting to return his drinks to the list of classic American cocktails. Beach, who is credited with inventing 84 different Tiki cocktails, passed away in Honolulu, Hawai’i in 1989.

Tiki Oasis features themes – 2017 was all about international intrigue. Reprinted from California Tiki: A History of Polynesian Idols, Pineapple Cocktails and Coconut Palm Trees by Jason Henderson & Adam Foshko, courtesy of Tiki Oasis (pg. 95, The History Press, 2018).
Tiki Oasis features themes – 2017 was all about international intrigue. Reprinted from California Tiki: A History of Polynesian Idols, Pineapple Cocktails and Coconut Palm Trees by Jason Henderson & Adam Foshko, courtesy of Tiki Oasis (pg. 95, The History Press, 2018).

Tiki’s comeback has not only been linked to Beach’s exotic and delicious drinks, however. Modern trends have focused on reviving “retro” styles from the 1950s and 60s, when Tiki was considered fashionable. Modern fans of Tiki culture can take part in conventions like Tiki Oasis, the world’s largest Tiki festival, and Tiki bars can be found as far-flung as New York City and Miami, rather than just in its West Coast roots.

Although the hey-day of Tiki may have passed with the mid 20th century, the love of island life lives on in the States, where the style still represents an escape from the pressures of modern society. With the help of veterans like James. A Michener and entrepreneurs like Ernest Gantt, Tiki remains a mainstay of American culture, offering an island vacation to Bali Ha’I to all those who choose to pursue it.

To read more about Tiki culture’s growth and popularity in America, be sure to purchase your copy of California Tiki: A History of Polynesian Idols, Pineapple Cocktails and Coconut Palm Trees by Jason Henderson & Adam Foshko!

To learn more about American music and entertainment, visit Arcadia Publishing today.

The Death of Swing Music

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In the early 20th century, swing music was the most popular genre amongst listeners, and hundreds flocked to dance halls across the country to hear big bands led by the likes of Duke Ellington and Artie Shaw. But after World War II, it seemed swing had met its end, as singers began to take over the music scene. From a tax on admission to Rock ‘n’ Roll, here are the biggest theories on what truly ended the Swing Era.

The Swing Era

During the decades of the 1920s, 30s, and 40s, jazz dominated the American music scene. Big bands, led by bandleaders like Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, and Artie Shaw, became nationwide sensations for their orchestras, which typically played swing music. Swing, a derivative of 1920s jazz, was popular for its emphasis on off-beat tempos, which lent well to dancing. These bands would typically feature soloists who led dance numbers, including musicians like Louis Armstrong and Billie Holiday.

The Ritz Ballroom, one of the most popular dancehalls during the Swing era.
The Ritz Ballroom, one of the most popular dancehalls during the Swing era. Reprinted from Bridgeport: 1900-1960 by Andrew Pehanick (pg. 117, Arcadia Publishing, 2009).

By 1936, swing had become the most popular genre of music in the United States, as young Americans filled dancehalls across the country. Clubs like the Ritz Ballroom in Bridgeport, and the Cotton Club in Harlem, became increasingly popular. Many of these nightclubs would combine music and dancing with dinner, giving an all-inclusive experience out for patrons. However, by the end of World War II, swing clubs had begun to die out, and by the late 1940s Americans had moved forward from their big band obsession in favor of newer genres like Bebop and Rock ‘n’ Roll.

The Theories

Many different ideas have been presented on why the popularity of big band and swing began to wane, ranging from federal taxes, to a willful decline:

  • The Cabaret Tax: In an effort to fund wartime endeavors, the US government passed the cabaret tax in 1944. The tax, which was levied against any “public place where music and dancing privileges… except instrumental or mechanical music alone, are afforded the patrons in connection with the serving or selling of food, refreshment, or merchandise,” took 30% of the gross receipts from clubs. This action hobbled swing nightclubs, who struggled to afford traditional big bands. In the interest of cutting costs, clubs began employing smaller bands, rather than paying for larger orchestras. As a result, music forms like Bebop came to the forefront, while big band fell to the wayside.
  • World War II: When the US joined the Allies in World War II, swing was at the height of its popularity. As a result, it was often used as a morale booster for troops, with many soldiers forming their own orchestras. The most famous of these was led by bandleader Glenn Miller, who was commissioned as a captain in the US Army in 1942. Miller’s 45-piece orchestra toured the world entertaining troops throughout the European Theater. However, by the end of the war, many American were looking to move forward from what was viewed as an extremely painful time in history. Big band music served as a major reminder of the war, and the decade preceding it. Consequently, the popularity of big band and swing music began to decline as the American public tried to distance themselves from memories of war.
Glenn Miller in 1942.
Glenn Miller in 1942. Reprinted from Only in Boulder: The County’s Colorful Characters by Silvia Pettem, courtesy of the Glenn Miller Archives, University of Colorado (pg. 87, The History Press, 2010).
  • The Musician Strike of 1942: In late 1942, the American Federation of Musicians called the longest strike in entertainment history against major US recording companies over royalty concerns. This strike, which lasted two years, forbid members of the union from making commercials recordings for record companies. The vast majority of union members belonged to big band orchestras, who subsequently did not release new material for a rather substantial time period. However, singers like Frank Sinatra (who were not included in the strike) quickly rose to prominence during this time period, as record companies began to focus on vocalists, rather than supporting bands. Prior to this strike, vocalists had been the support to orchestras, rather than vice versa.
  • Self-Implosion: While swing was the most popular form of jazz, many of the era’s biggest bandleaders did not actually want to record dance music. Often, bandleaders wanted to perform jazz music that people would sit and seriously listen to, in a similar vein to classical music. When it was evident this bridge from dance to more sober music wouldn’t occur, many bandleaders left the profession. Artie Shaw, who led some of the most popular bands of the era (and sold millions of records) left big band at the height of his popularity, later disdainfully citing that all people wanted to hear “was dance music.”
  • Rock ‘n’ Roll: Another popular theory is that as the children of the Big Band era reached their teenage years and young adulthood, many wanted to rebel against their swing-loving parents. As a result, rock ‘n’ roll began to gain traction in the mid-1950s, as legends like Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly began their careers. Rock ‘n’ roll went on to be the predominate genre of the mid-to-late 1950s, setting the foundation for the explosion of the rock genre that began with The Beatles in the early 1960s.
Elvis Presley, one of the foremost entertainers of the Rock ‘n’ Roll era.
Elvis Presley, one of the foremost entertainers of the Rock ‘n’ Roll era. Reprinted from The Mid-South Fair: Celebrating 150 Years by Robert W. Dye on behalf of the mid-South Fair Historical Committee (pg. 114, Arcadia Publishing, 2006).

So what’s the truth?

The death of the Swing era can’t be attributed to any one factor: it could have been for any combination of these influences, or perhaps all of them. Today, the Jazz industry has been on a steady decline – currently, less than 2% of US music sales are from the jazz genre, and nearly half of these belong to artist Kenny G. However, swing has been preserved by a large amount of revivalists, who attempt to keep the tradition of the Big Band era alive. Nightclubs like the Swing 46 in New York City, or Maxwell DeMille’s Cicada Club in Los Angeles host dinner and dancing à la the 1930s and 40s, while swing dance groups and classes can still be found in cities nationwide. While the time of Duke Ellington, Glenn Miller, and their contemporaries has passed, they have left an undeniable influence on American music history, and are preserved through memory and tradition.

How World Cup Stadiums Fare After the Games

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Sporting events like the Olympics and the World Cup are some of the world’s most-attended events, with millions of tourists pouring in to enjoy the spectacle of the games. Many cities build massive arenas to host these tourists, along with accommodations and sometimes even infrastructure to support the event. But what happens when the games have ended, and the people have gone?

White Elephants Worldwide

While holding mega-events like the Olympics and the World Cup is typically viewed as an honor to host-cities, the costs of such events can quickly add up for citizens, as they must make necessary preparations for such large-scale events. These preparations are often complicated by requirements from organizing committees like FIFA, who have numerous guidelines before stadiums can be approved for World Cup games.

A mural for the World Cup in Pasadena, California. Reprinted from The Rose Bowl by Michelle L. Turner and the Pasadena Museum of History, courtesy of PMH, PSN Collection (pg. 99, Arcadia Publishing, 2010).

As a result of these requirements, brand-new facilities must be built in many cases to support the coming event. If stadiums are not built from scratch, existing arenas often require extensive renovations to make them viable for the tournament. All expenses considered, the final price-tag on mega-events varies widely, but in recent years the World Cup alone has cost anywhere from $3-15 billion USD.

While the massive costs associated with hosting the Olympics and World Cup are a large deterrent for many cities, the biggest concern for many citizens is what will happen to facilities and stadiums once the sporting events have ended. Once crowds have cleared, there is very often little use for the arenas and amenities that were built, and overhead costs force them into abandonment and disrepair.

These abandoned sites are now referred to as “white elephants:” public spots that sit mostly empty after events have ended, and drain money from the surrounding area. FIFA in particular has been accused in recent years of forcing cities to create white elephants, as existing stadiums are often found to be “inadequate” for the World Cup.

Recent white elephants are now causing cities to lose millions annually. Some of the worst offenders have included:

  • The Arena da Amazônia: Located in the city of Manaus, Brazil, the arena cost $220 million USD to build for the 2014 World Cup. Manaus was a relatively unpopular destination for World Cup games: located deep within the Amazon rainforest, the city is only accessible by boat or plane, and does not have a thriving football presence. The stadium itself, which seats nearly 45,000 at capacity, is all but forgotten by the city’s population of roughly two million. On the best nights, local rookie-level football teams draw about 1,000 people to a game. As a result, while the arena generated some $180,000 USD in revenue during a four-month period, it lost $560,000 in the same time period, leaving a deficit of nearly $400,000.
  • Cape Town Stadium: Built for the 2010 World Cup, Cape Town Stadium (in Cape Town, South Africa) cost the country $600 million to build. Cape Town had originally intended to use a local stadium that only needed simple renovations, but was not approved by FIFA for use. This stadium, which was located near the area of Cape Town holding most of the city’s football fans, would have revitalized the community. The new Cape Town Stadium was instead built on the city’s waterfront, far away from where most football fans could afford to travel to. As a result, once the games had ended, the stadium began losing $8-10 million USD annually. Today, the stadium hosts the occasional concert (with no events currently scheduled), and struggles to bring in any sustained revenue.
  • Russia 2018: While the games in Russia won’t end until the championship game on July 15, many are worried that the stadiums built will also become white elephants like Brazil and South Africa’s before them. Russia’s arenas have cost almost $11 billion USD to build, and were built throughout the country, including areas where football isn’t especially popular. In cities like Volgograd, stadiums that can seat 35,000 will be left behind with only a club team (whose games average between 3,800 to 6,000 in attendance) to attempt to fill seats. Only time will tell if the stadiums built for this year’s World Cup will be viable.

A Model for Repurposing

Despite their challenges, hosting mega-events can be a benefit to a region in many ways, firstly by helping to build global recognition and prestige. The 2014 Winter Olympics, for example, helped to place the obscure resort city of Sochi, Russia in the world conscious, and build local tourism. For cities that already have a global reputation, worldwide sporting events offer a chance for these cities to reinvent themselves, presenting a new-and-improved image of the area to visiting crowds and world viewers.

The ability to use mega-events as a way to reinvent a city’s image has worked particularly well in the United States, where the Olympics and World Cup have largely done well. This success has been due (in part) to the fact that a majority of American cities already have facilities that can be used for such occasions – with little building costs, host-cities often stand to at least break even, if not make money off the games.

Of all American mega-events, perhaps the most successful was the 1984 Olympics, held in Los Angeles, California. California had already hosted the 1932 Summer Olympics, and the city had several venues already built and ready for a new rendition of the games (including sites like the Rose Bowl and the LA Coliseum). Combining these existing facilities with smart financial planning, and the use of sustainable resources, the 1984 Olympics were able to not only break even, but even turned a profit of over $200 million USD. Nearly half of this money was reinvested into the city of Los Angeles, and continues to assist charity work throughout the area.

Even in areas that have constructed venues for mega-games, white elephants have remained relatively rare following American mega-events. Many of the facilities constructed have been repurposed over the years, becoming part of university campuses, tourist attractions, and other public sites. Some notable examples include:

  • Francis Field at Washington University in St. Louis: The world’s oldest Olympic development still in active use, Francis Field was built as the main stadium for the 1904 Olympic Games. The 1904 games were the first to be held in the Western Hemisphere after receiving major support from Missouri’s then-governor, David Rowland Francis, for whom the field was named. After the games ended, the stadium became the permanent home for the Washington University Bears, and has continued to host American football games to this day.
  • Mount Van Hoevenberg Bobsled Run: Part of the greater Lake Placid Olympic Sport Complex, the Mount Van Hoevenberg Bobsled Run has gone through several iterations since its original building in 1930. Originally constructed for the 1932 Winter Olympic Games, the bobsled track was originally carved into the land, and meant to be longer and steeper than its previous European counterparts. The track was subsequently shortened following the games, but was used for bobsleigh world championships, as well as a luge track, before hosting the bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton events during the 1980 Winter Olympics. Today, the bobsled run has become a tourist destination where visitors can run down the track as if they were on the Olympic team.
  • Turner Field: Originally named Centennial Olympic Stadium, Turner Field was built for the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia. Although the stadium cost $209 million USD to construct, the majority of these costs (approximately $170 million) were covered by corporate and media sponsors. The city of Atlanta was able off-set many of the costs of the games through sponsorships like Turner’s, eventually turning a profit after the games of approximately $19 million. After closing ceremonies, the stadium was converted to a baseball-specific field, and became the home of the Atlanta Braves for 20 seasons, ending in 2016. After the Braves’ departure, Turner Field was sold to Georgia State University, where it was converted a second-time to serve as the school’s current American football stadium.

Although games like the World Cup offer large benefits to cities, the risk of white elephants has led to many changes in recent years about how host cities are chosen. In 2026, North America will host the World Cup, with Canada, the US, and Mexico participating as host countries. Chosen in part because all three countries have FIFA-suitable stadiums already standing, only time will tell if a profit can once again be found in a North American mega-event.

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